History of Transportation

Published Date: 23 Mar 2015 Last Modified: 15 Sep 2017

History of Transportation

Transportation was, is and will be one of the most important issues of peoples life. It accounts centuries. Definition of transportation can be different, as the reason, it can mean the trip between two places, two villages, for trade, war or maybe just for journey. It can be done using air, water or land. Transports transformed during centuries and today look much different than in nineteenth or at the beginning of twentieth century and much different than it was in early stages.

Transportation is an integral part of history, history itself, in point of fact, has often been determined by movement across the land-movement of armies, of whole peoples in migration and of trade.

In the early stages progress rate in land transportation was very slow. Man from the beginning was characterized by movement from one place to another, searching some food, attacking his neighbors, to find wife in other groups and so on. The main goals of man in early stages were: hunting and abduction. But all of these was often behind the human migration, the stronger conquering the weaker. Man for on his own feet could travel more than three miles per hour. Despite the flexibility of his physical structure, he was compared to other animals, which were stronger, more agile, and swifter, but the human animal had certain advantages, big brain, flexible hand structure, he had to walk upright, freeing his hands for the use of tools. Later man started to evaluate substitutes. Firstly he had dragged all the things he needed, but later the man understood that someone else also could do it by his direction and regulation. The animals: dogs, elephants, donkeys camels became the first, who appeared in the history of transportation.

The earliest vehicle seems to have been the sledge. Very possibly the sledge had its origin in a simple branch drawn behind a man or beast. For thousand years ago the Egyptians used much the same kind of vehicle, but with heavier and stronger runners, to transport immense blocks of stone , some weighing as mush as 800 or 900 tones. So as we see the sledge was very useful, but later however the wheel made its progress. The oldest examples of wheel are found in Mesopotamia and date from the fourth millennium B.C., among the Sumerians, Akkadians, Elamites and Chaldeans. Sumerians were the first people who reach the civilization, so they seem to have been the first who used the full wheel. At the beginning it was three planks of wood , which were pegged together in a rough circle. Soon they strengthened it, using a metal band or tire and finally hollowed out for lightness and equipped with spokes. For a long time the chariots was reserved for the nobility, for trade or by the common people as wagons, but it was later.

Sumerian chariot changed very little over a thousand years , until the introduction of the horse from central Asia. In the seventeenth century B.C. horse-drawn chariot made its appearance. It became the principal weapon of the Assyrians, who eventually subdues most of the civilized world. [1]

The biggest transformations in transport sector started from the construction of roads. Romans constructed a huge road system that made possible to use different types of vehicles and also develop new ones. They had 20 different types of vehicles, from the two-wheeled carpentum, which was very fast and light and had a leather hoot for protection of drivers , to the four-wheel carruca, which could carry whole family.

The first real roads, that were constructed were very short. Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar had its famous Procession street , which was made with large stones over a foundation of asphalt, which led through the city to a substantial bridge across the Euphrates. For facilitating the transportation of heavy blocks of stone the Egyptians built roads, which were short, but very broad.

Times changed and from year to year people started to invent more energetically and interesting things for transportation. Historically horse, pulling a vehicle was very useful for people, but later they started to create different kinds of apparatus, which provided for them more energy to get from one place to another, from time to time. And so we come to the curious mechanical vehicles of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and which were operated by land levers.

First everything started with invention of different and small carriages, which was possible to drive without horses.

In 1645 Jean Theson create a small four-wheeled carriage , which was driven without horses for two seated man. Another invention was made by German , Hautsch around 1600, which also was used without horses.

The ancient Chinese had attached some sails for their cart, which helped them along, the elector Johann Friedrich built a vehicle of this type in Europe in 1543. In 1600 Simon Stevin a military engineer, built a famous chariot, it had two masts, a plough-shaped rudder and all kinds of ingenious devices for trimming or lowering the sails with dispatch.

In 1826 an English man , George Pocock launched smaller carriage, which he called " flying Chariot", of course without horses, it worked average from 15 to 20 miles an hour. There was also another wind-propelled vehicles , named " Flying Coach" , which was invented by Non Jose Boscasa and Hacquet's " Eolienne" The latter , favored by a southwest wind, actually sailed through the streets of Paris one day in 1834.

The first steam carriage which actually worked and could not go faster than 4 miles per hour was Nicolas Cugnot's " fardier" , a large cart. Intended to transport guns or other heavy loads , it was made of stout beams and had three huge , iron-strapped wheels, with power delivered direct to the single wheel in front by two massive cylinders. A big boiler and firebox were suspended over the front wheel, making it even more cumbersome. This frightening monster , which was tested before the Minister Choiseul in 1769, had to stop every 15 minutes to get up more steam and vibrated so much that it finally escaped from its inventor and tore into a wall of the arsenal. Nevertheless, it was the first vehicle in which the thrust of pistons successfully turned a driving wheel; in order words it was really the first automobile .[2]

The ' fardier' can still be seen at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris. On view at the Birmingham Museum is the second forerunner of the automobile, a small steam model built by William Murdock, Watt's assistant in 1784. With its light wheels and little smokestack at the back it looks frail compared to the heavy " fardier". The third pioneer vehicle was Oliver Evans's steam carriage, which he drove through the streets of Philadelphia toward the end of 1804. It was a huge amphibious boat which had been built to dredge the Schuylkill River. Evans named it the " Orukter Amphibolos' or the " digger which works all ways" because it was equipped with wheels for land travel and paddlewheel for the water. And it actually worked ,lumbering several miles over uneven ground before entering the river, where the paddlewheel took over from the belts which drove the wheels.

In 1891 Richard Trevithick , helped by Andre Vivian, built a steam carriage with the engine in the rear which could carry about a dozen passengers at nine miles an hour. Two years later, before turning to the steam railway, Trevithick actually ran a steam tricycle through the streets of London. In the next 30 years or so quite a number of self -propelled steam carriages were built and operated on the new , hard surfaced roads of England and with considerable success. Outstanding was the steam carriage of Goldsworthy Gurney, which weighed two tones. By 1832 his coach was running on schedule four times daily between Gloucester and Cheltenham. In 396 trips it carried 3 000 passengers without mischance. Around 1834 Walter Hancock was operating several lines, including his Paddington-City of London run. But all these coaches disappeared and the same happened in France - even through Onesiphore Pecqueur in 1828 had invented true modern steering with two wheels, and the differential for a rear-wheel drive.

Later train became very popular among other transports, its success was irresistible, of course because it could go faster with great safety and economy and also could carry more passengers. The railroad interests combines with owners of horse drawn stages , with people who sold horses , with turnpike companies , and farmers who grew oats for fodder -pushed through a series of laws hampering and taxing the road locomotives, forbidding them to travel faster than four miles an hour and finally requiring a man with a red flag to precede each self-propelled vehicle on a public highway. The latter act was not repealed until 1896. thus with the failure of the steam coaches Britain was deprived of any chance for an early lead in the automobile field. Bollees, were father and sons , who brought steam back on the road. Their first machine was the " Obeissante" a 15- horsepower monster weighing five tones and traveling at 24 miles per hour. It was well received when it was shown in Paris in 1873. Five years later the "Mancelle", a much smaller machine ,made its importance, it was much more economical. By this time Bollee machines became known throughout the Europe. There was the "Marie-Anne " , " Nouvelle" of 1880 , which could do 27 miles per hour , per " Avant-Courrier " of the same year and the " Rapide" of 1881.

Count Albert de Dion, with the mechanic Georges Bouton, worked out a little three-wheeler in 1883 which could be drive by one man. He followed it with others, faster and more economical. But the principal inconveniences remained: the driver had to stock water and coal, light the fire, wait for his car to get up steam and finally he had to abandon all thoughts of traveling faster then 24 miles per hour prescribed by law.

"There is a great need". Baudry de Saunier wrote, " to produce almost instantly and with little pressure the quantity of steam needed and to do it with a strictly non-explosive boiler.» Leon Serpollet, last of the great steam-car inventors , did prissily this , making the Paris to Enghien-less-Bains run in 1888 on a kind tricycle which answered Baudry de Saunier's equipments. In 1890, with Ernst Archdeacon , he made the Paris-Lyon run in ten days. At Nice in 1902 Serpollet achieved a speed of 75 miles per hour.

An eclectic automobile by Nicolas Raffard appeared in Paris in 1883 . About the same time an English man , Magnus Volk, brought out a similar car, while a carriage builder named Jentaud produced one with a seven horse-power engine that could make 15 miles an hour. Later on , a racing car by Jenataud achieved a world record- 56 miles per hour. This was finally capped by Camille Jenatzy's electric "Jamais Contente", which did 65 miles per hour. At the end of nineteenth century, when the gasoline automobile was still young, it seemed for a time as if the electric car might be the automobile of the future. Many were built -silent, powerful, and comfortable and were a common sight up into the 1920s, especially in the cities. But electric traction had a serious defect: the batteries often weighed a ton, and the driver had to stop frequently to recharge them. [3]

It is difficult to say, who was the inventor of the first engine . Philippe Lebon in 1800 planned to explode a medley of air and lighting gas in a cylinder to move a piston.. Other inventors used gases and hydrocarbons as fuel and experimented mostly in design. Combustion engine first became commercially successful in middle of nineteenth century with small gas engines,, whose inventor was French, Joseph Etienne Lenoir. The next was to compress the mixture before exploding it , an idea which was worked out in terms of the conventional engine by Beau de Rochas, in 1862 . The idea was taken up in 1867 by Nikolaus Otto, he produced engine two times, as economical one and as fast as Lenoir's. His four-cycle " Otto Silent" of 1876 led directly to the modern automobile engine.

Daimler, hitting upon gasoline as a fuel, produced a lightweight engine which he tested on a bicycle in 1885 , thus unwittingly inventing the motorcycle. His first automobile was a four-wheeler. Benz's was a simple three-wheeler , but it had some features, that anticipated the modern automobile., a rudimentary water-cooling radiator, differential gear and electrical instead of flame ignition. Its engine was a four-cycle. Like the Daimler , its speed was around 10 miles per hour. .

Daimler sold his patent to Rene Panhard and the engineer Emile Levassor, who wanted to introduce the automobile to France. The first test was in 1890 and 1891 . The objective was to go from Porte d'Ivry to the Viaduct of Auteuil and back without engine trouble, an objective that was soon achieved. After this the firm of Ponhard-Levassor received its first order and soon was sharing it with Armand Peugeot who also used the patent of Daimler.

In 1894 by Pierre Giffard of the Petit Journal organized the first great race between Paris and Rouen-77 miles, the competition was between all types of automobiles: whether steam, electric, or gasoline. The winner was Count Albert de Dion, who averaged 13 miles per hour in the little steam car. In 1895 a second race was organized ,much longer and more difficult, fro Paris to Bordeaux and return, a distance of 744 miles. Steam was represented by one of count de Dion's cars, two Serpollets, and Bollee's " Mancelle", gasoline by a Panhard Levassor and three Peugeots and electricity by Jeantaud . From the 21 vehicles, which participated, Panhard Levassor was who won, completing the course in less than half of 100 hours anticipated by the organizers. The superiority of gasoline over steam and electricity was proved beyond a doubt. The race proved also that an automobile, like a bicycle could and should ride upon air. Michelin Brothers had been proved a success -even through they had to be changed by the drivers every 93 miles.

The next round was infernal and murderous, right up to the Indianapolis race of today , the " 24" hors of the Le Mans , of Monte Carlo, of other places. There was the Tour de France, from Paris to Berlin, the Paris-Vienna , the Gordon Bennett Cup and the bloody Paris- Madrid race of 1903, in which was killed Marcel Renault. During the Competition the roads between cities were turned into mad circuses filled with surging crowds. Out of the noise was born Germany's Taunus meet, Italy's Monza, Englands Brooklands and in the United States , the Atlantic City. From year to year the automobiles improved. Then there were rallies and competitions, which sent the automobiles in different sides of the world.

The United States , saw its first successful gasoline automobile in 1893-that of Charles and Frank Duryea. It was a small, four-horsepower phaeton with little engine. American Automobile industry comes form 1896, when the Duryea Motor Wagon Company produced 14 cars. The First Packard introduced in 1899. But the real contribution of United States was in mass production and the start player , her was Henry Ford, who is famous for all of us.

Henry Ford first started with stem, but later he left the idea. He put together his first successful "gasoline buggy "in 1896, then series of cars "999", the "Arrow" and others and could not decide , which one of them was better. The answer on this question, later was received in Europe , first by Citroen and then by others. The immediate result was the Model T Ford. In 1909 Henry Ford had written that that the automobile of the future must be superior to the present car to beget confidence in the man of limited means , and sufficiently lower in price to insure sales for an enormously increased output. He said: " the car of the future must be a car for people...the market for a lower-priced car is unlimited." [4]And latter, every one saw ,that he was really write, because the number of sold cars sharply increased. Between 1908 and 1928 there were sold more than 15 million Model T Fords. During 1925 , only in one day alone, more than 9000 were built.[5] Later the competitors and successors followed the example of Henry Ford, because it was really good idea, who else could imagine and do it.

The First design of carriage in Italy , which could run without horses , was done by famous artist Leonardo da Vinci, if we look back. But Father Barsanti and Professor Mattenci were, who together took out a patent for a gas engine in 1854. In 1894 Colonel Bordino produced a small automobile. But the real beginning was in 1895 , the year the celebrated Agnelli created the no less celebrated " Fiat " in Turin. A Fiat in 1907 won a magnificent triple victory: the Traga Florio, the Sarthe circuit and the Emperor's Cup. The road had been prepared for the elegant automobile, for automobiles, which are named as Lancia, Ferrari, Maserati and Alfa-Romeo.

Now the automobile has everything it needed, things such as four-cylinder engine, wheels of the same size all around, electric lighting, an electrical self-starter , and for all of that we have to be thankful for American inventor Charles Kettering, who invented this automobile in 1911. [6]

Looking at all these historical points we saw that the transportation was important not only in nineteenth century and today, but it comes from much earlier period, people used transportation for different reasons .During many years transportation transformed and the period from the nineteenth century to the present was the period of amazing changes and progresses in automobile industry. Transportation started by foots with man from early stages and today continues with luxury automobiles. In past we saw that the automobile was very luxury and very expensive pleasure for people, but today it is very necessary thing, which has almost all families and use them for different necessity , but as it was as in past , today automobile industry also feels and faces many different problems . What will be tomorrow nobody knows, how transportation and automobile industry can transform, maybe we can dream about something more, about something unbelievable in this sector.

Meaning ofCommon Transport

Policy

Since the entry into force of the Treaty of Rome in 1958, the transport industry ,faithful servant that it is ,has undergone significant change in order to adopt to the growth and needs of international trade. [7]

The Treaty of Rome provides the legal basis for the creation of a common transport policy . Next to agriculture and commercial policy the Common Transport Policy is one of the three common policies specially mentioned n Article 3 of the Treaty as one of the activities the Community must pursue in order to "establish a common market and progressively to and progressively approximate the economic policies of the Member States». Irrespective of the Treaty provisions, transport policy left under the control of the Member States . The Member States pursue different transport policies and proceed from different bases for State intervention. [8]

Common policy means reformulating the policies of Member States to form a single Community policy: a process of integration culminating is supranational transport policy. [9] The main aim of the policy is to shun the difference between Member States.

Transport industry has few differences from other industrial sectors. When we are talking about economic fields:

1. Transport is used as an instrument of State economic policy. Transport is a major industry by such criteria , that ii is measured : employment , investment and etc. [10]In transport sectors are employed high percentage of workers . Transport sector of EU-15 employed 6.2 million people, and that increased to 7.4 million after enlargement of 2004.[11]
2. Transport industry is important activity to other industrial sectors and its levels of rates are crucial to the State's economy. In a market promoting specialized production, the consumer and the producer , both depend on transport , to meet their each others needs. The independent carrier, occupies a central position in the market as a whole: this his policies, unless regulated, can hinder international trade by discriminating as to charges between producers or also between consumers.
3. Some regulations are important for modes which are covered but Transport , such as road rail, inland, waterway, sea and air, because most of them are competing with each other and sometimes conflicts are irreversible.
4. Transport is an industry with public service obligations, where governments often intervene by obliging some services and also by controlling the tariffs. Railways are used an instrument of economic policy, where public financing of the infrastructure is very common. In case of roads, the building of roads often depends on the State, but once the roads are built and open to traffic many different types of users take advantage of their existence.
5. Transport industry is characterized by undertakings of dissimilar structure, which provides interchangeable services. Inelasticity in the supply of transport owing of the "perishability "of its services makes full freedom of competition impracticable.
6. Transport sector is subject to many international agreements, whose some of the Member states are parties and have to fulfill international obligations.
7. In area of inland waterways, the Commission has incomplete competence because of relationships with third countries. The Rhine regime, which is established by the Mannheim Convention in 1868 , with Central Commission implementing its provisions, cannot be ignored. The Central Commission, within the EC territory governs the most important single constituent in inland transport. The area of air and maritime transport are governed by many international treaties.

All this factors which are mentioned above made difficulties for the Union to develop such as policies, which will spirit the integration of transport services and satisfy the needs of the single European market. [12]

The most important changes in European Transport industry started from 1970s, when increased the usage of road transport. This gross was really dramatic and it effected the railway transport. During the 1970s the rail's share of the passenger market has fallen from 10.2 % to 6.3 %.[13]

European railway increased investment on developing fundamental new techniques and infrastructures, such as high speed trains: TGV, Eurostar and etc., for competition with other transport's modes. Also was mentioned the high increase in air transport for long-haul journeys and maritime transport has been relegated to the short-haul ferry market. [14]

In the European Union transport sector is very important issue, it provides 4% of the GDP. Also as we already mentioned above, it provides employment for EU citizens. In 1991, employees in the transport sector constituted between 4 % and 5% of waged labor. It amounted to 5.6 million people, 2, 509000 of them were employed in road transport, 897000 in rail transport , 24 000 in inland waterway transport , 217000 in maritime and 349000 in air and 1569000[15] in other sector which are related to transport industry.

Transport sector is the growth industry in European Union. The demand In industry is generally proportionate to Gross Domestic Product. Taking the average annual economic growth in the European Union since 1970 as 2.6 %, the growth in goods transport services has been 2.3 % and passenger transport services 3.1%.

Transport is the link which brings together people and products from all European regions, above all the remoter regions.

Transport in European Union was and is characterized by a great measure of government invention and a confused network of bilateral and multilateral inter-state agreements in which the Member States used to and still participate. [16]

When we speak about Common Transport Policy it is important to distinguish three phases of this policy. First phase of the transport policy started after the entry into force of Treaty of Rime and continued till 1973-1974. During this phase , the European Community , was concentrated on creation of common market fro transport by road, inland waterways, rail and opening the national market between all Member States for competition. This idea was formulated in 1961 Memorandum by Commission and in 1962 Action Programme. [17]

First phase of Common transport policy involved discussions between Member States and Commission, because the provisions giver by the Treaty were not concreted to what it should contain.

At the end of the second phase, from 1973 , the accession of Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom to the European Community introduced more liberal and less land-centred views into inactive transport policy [18] At the end of 1973, The development of Common Transport Policy was determined again by the Commission and The Council .

In 1974 in maritime and air transport sector two important events took place for development of Common Transport Policy : the Court gave judgment in the French Seamen case and under the auspices of the United Nations, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Code of Conduct for Liner Conference was adopted. [19]

Third phase started from 1983, when the various proposals for structured development of the Common Transport Policy , in several memoranda concerning the inland ( 1983), air (1984) and maritime ( 1985) sectors.[20]

Speaking about Transport policy it is important to mention the main factors, which influence , such as: geography, technology, wealth.

The oldest influence probably lies in the physical features of European geographical environment, which can encourage or discourage travel. It is relatively easy to travel up and down a river valley such as the Rhine and Danube , much harder to cross major physical barriers such as the Alps or the Pyrenees other then by air. Most traffic crossing the English Channel or the Baltic has to go by the sea, though there is now a Channel Tunnel Between England and France, opened in 1994 and the Oresund bridge between Denmark and Sweden, opened in 2000. There are four rail tunnels through the Alps and seven road crossings, but some of these are open in summer only, and the two road tunnels between France and Italy, opened in 1965 and 1980, are single-bore with just one line of traffic in each direction. Heavy-goods traffic is heavily dependent on these two narrow tunnels, another under the Gotthard Pass in Switzerland and the one major four-lane highway which crosses the Brenner Pass at 1, 372 meters. The only significant rail and road crossings of the Pyrenees follow the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts. Since these mountain chance and sea crossing generally coincide with national frontiers, which indeed they have often determined, they also contribute to keeping national transport policies separate. [21]Sometimes the national frontiers doesn't coincide the physical barriers.

People always thought about travel and trading goods in places ,where they can use their own language , were their rights are respected and they have easier access to the education and medical system. It is very interesting in this case to mention the situation in German after the Second World War .When Germany was divided into two parts its system of roads and railways , built to facilitate military and civilian communications on East and West axis, had to be reconfigured to strengthen North-South communications on either side of the Iron Curtain.[22]

After the reunification European Union is reducing the importance of national frontiers, for example with the creation of single currency of Europe-Euro, but for some people it is difficult to cross the borders and go to study or work , for few of the it is unbelievable to cross national borders, even where are no the physical barriers , who can avoid them. Even with the single European market, the volume of international trade in 1994 was only about 7% of the tonnage mowed within national frontiers.[23]

Second important influencing on transport policy is technology. As we already mentioned, when we discussed the history of transportation , transport sector developed many times, during many years, first the feet presented the main transport for people, then transports developed by wheel , sail ant etc and over the past 250 years the steam engine, internal combustion engine, the jet engine , and electric traction have each facilitated a step-change in technology [24] the main objective of such as technological revolutions are to make transportation more comfortable, easier, cheaper and safer.

The third factor which has the major influence on transport policy is wealth. There is very strong correlation between economic performance as measured by gross domestic product and the growth of goods and passenger transport. It seems that the more we earn , the more we spend on travel and on the consumption of goods which themselves have to be transported over long distances to reach our homes .And there is no sign as yet that these trends will not continue to generate a steadily increasing demand for transport. In 2001 Transport White Paper, the commission estimated that GDP growth of 43% between 1998 and 2010 will generate increases in the movement of passengers and goods of 24% and 38% receptivity. [25]

Transport policy as we already mentioned above is very important issue for European Union , because it is important policy for economic sector of the Union, for Environment, for Labor Market and also for competition. And European Union always tries to implement different strategies to improve and reconstructure this policy for the weal-being of the citizens.

Modes of Transport

Transport sector covers different modes such as: road transport, railway, waterway and air transport.

Development of all these modes is different by times and by structures. In this part we will discuss recent developments in European different modes of transport sector.

Personal mobility has more then doubled from 17km a day in 1970 to 38km in the late 1990s.Road transport is Europe's dominant transport mode and its dominance continues to grow. Private car ownership in the EU -15 increased from 232 per thousand in 1975 to 469per thousand in 2000 and continues to grow .[26] Road transport at the end of 1990s represented 44% of the goods transport market compared with 44% for short sea shipping, 8% for rail and 4% for inland waterways. In passenger transport it represented 79% of the market, 5 % of air and also 6% of railways.

Development of road transport is very important and interesting case , because during last years the volume of road freight grew by 3.5% a year and 7% in the case of cross-border freight. The roads now take about 75% of freight traffic within the EU , compared with less than 50% in 1970. As regards road transport, the key mode is the private car and growth in car use. During last 30 years the number of cars tripled, at an increase of 3 million cars each year. For 1975 there were 232 cars per 1000 people and now there are 444 cars per 1000 persons.[27]

For promotion of more safety transport , European Union introduced some legislations on the driver qualifications, inspection of cars , speed limits and also on carriage of goods, which are dangerous and not safe.

In 1997 the European Union launched highly ambitious campaign for road safety. In addition to annual checks , random roadside inspections and pollutant emissions analyses have been mandatory since 1998[28]. Also very important issue is private cars inspectetion, which is obligatory at least every two years. European Union has introduced few strict emission standards and road tax system, for promotion of more comfortable and safer road transport. Since 1 July 1998, road cabotage in the movement of freight throughout the single market has become fully liberalized[29].

Another important mode of transport is maritime transport , which by virtue of the Community's geography and importance as the world's biggest trading area, merchant shipping and maritime policy are key elements of the Common Transport Policy. [30] At the end of the 20th century the highest amount of external trade was transported by sea. For 1999, 41% of trade was conducted by sea, 21 % by road, 25 % by rail, and only 0.5% by waterways. As we see for this period sea transport was dominant in comparing with other modes of transport. Maritime campaigns controlled by EU nationals command 35% of the world fleet and some 40% of the European Union trade is carried on vessels owned or controlled by European Union's interests. This sector, including shipbuilding, ports and related industries and services employs around 2.5 million people in the European Union. [31]

The principle of European Union maritime policy is same as other areas of transport: competition, safety and protection environment. The process of liberalization and opening up national markets to competition within the European Union is almost complete within the exception of the southern Member States , which have been allowed a gradual opening of their markets until 2004, maritime cabotage has been liberalize since 1999. there is thus virtually total freedom to provide services within the European Union. [32]

Sail of cars for 1998 decrease in comparison with 1970 almost three times. If for in 10970 is was 32%, for 1998 it already was just 11%. European Union tried to solve this problem, because this crisis situation in maritime transport effected also labor market, it cause high unemployment and job losses for nationals of European Union. The European Union has attempted to remedy this situation by new strategy consisting of:

• Positive measures to help operators facing international competition, such as aid to preserve EU employment;
• Promotion of sea shipping as an environmentally friendlier alternative to road transport;
• Improving sea qualifications of crews by developing and assisting suitable training programs;
• Improving safety;
• Supporting research and technological development[33]

Third important mode of transport is railway transport. This mode accounts many years and discussions about this type of transport started when during 1920s, when the road transport development began to impend the financial stability of railway companies. At this time increased the involvement of government in transport sector , it was important to formulate new policy , which could regulate such as competitions n this sector, mostly between road and railway transport. All over Europe, from 1930s railways became increasingly dependent on government support and some were taken into public ownership.[34] Government tried to solve this problem, such as competition between different modes in same sector and they emerged the strategy , to allocate rail for long distance transport of goods and passengers and road transport for shorter journeys for passengers.

For nearly 30 years rail transport still is characterized by worrying decline and mostly in freight transport. In 1970 the railways carried 32% of all freight in the EU-15 . By 1996 the figure was just 14% to 73,7%. Railway passenger traffic also declined from 10% in 1970 , to 6% in 1999.[35]

Rail transport is less competitive than road haulage. Road, unlike rail, provides a door-to-door services. Since railways are a safe and environmentally clean mode of transport, revitalizing them is a top priority of the European Union's Common Transport Policy.[36]

On January 1998, began the establishment of international freight freeways. The purpose of this innovation was to improve the quality of rail freight. There are four freeways in service at present:

• North-South, linking ports in northern Europe with those of the south;
• Scan ways, linking Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden;
• Belifret, linking Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Italy and Spain;
• UK- Sopron , which is still under discussion, which would provide an east-west route from the United kingdom to Hungary, with onward connections to other central and eastern European countries.[37]

By the Council in 2001 were adopted new directives, which are known as " Rail Infrastructure Package " and later it was implemented by member States in 2003. The purpose of these implementation is to develop a Trans-European Rail Freight Transport , which would start with 50000 km of length. This means that any licensed railway operator can run freight services across member states over the entire rail network in Europe. [38]

Like for maritime, road and railway modes of transport, for airline the 1980-1990s was also very important period of development .During this period the staff of airline rose from 325000 to 350000 and the number of employment in this sector also increased from 435000 to 490000 over the same period.

Europe's airport infrastructure is coming closer to the limits of its capacity and more investment is being undertaken or planned in nearly all the Member countries. [39]

In liberalization of air transport we can mention three stages:

• First package , which is adopted in 1987, a first relaxation of the rules.
• In 1990, a second " package" in pricing and the allocation of seat capacity.
• The third "package" in the liberalization of air transport started in 1993.

The measures that brought market liberalization included:

• A Community license to all European Union carries for unrestricted access to all domestic markets;
• A level playing field for competition;
• The allocation of slots to enable new carries to enter the liberalized market, despite the congestion problems;
• Ground handing services to be gradually opened up to competition and to achieve full liberalization by December 2003.
• Competition in computerized reservation systems which handle 70% of all bookings, and are owned by the major airlines : a regulation prohibits these airlines from giving themselves and exclusive advantages;
• Airport charges to be regulated so that the deterrent effect they might have on new operators will be reduced;
• Strict rules on state aid to airlines to ensure that it is given only for purposes of restructuring without distorting market competition: under these rules , the European Union has authorized state aid to seven airlines since 1987( Sabena, Iberia,Aer Lingus, TAP, Air France, Olympic Airways and Alitalia);
• The adoption of Commission on 27 September 2000 of a proposal for a European parliament and Council regulation , which would put in place a Community system of air safety and environmental regulation and would set up an aviation safety agency;
• A policy of integration of environmental concerns into sectoral policies, called for by the Treaty of Amsterdam.[40]

The terrorist attack ,which held in New York in 2001 has threaten the aviation industry. This fact thought aviation industry into bi crisis . Many airline companies reduced their flights and that of course had big input on employment in the airline sector. And all these descended world economy into big recession.

Till now all these modes of transport continues to develop, but with different success, because all of them have their individual structure and importance for citizens, business , trade, environment, safety, passengers and generally for whole European Union. Some of them are less developed and some more . And still the competition between all these modes is high. European Union as we already discussed above tries to solve the problem, by implementing different legislations, directives and strategies. But any way the road transport today still takes the dominant position in European Union, and few figures can illustrate this issue. Private car ownership in the EU 15 increased after 1075 till 2000 , in 1975 it was 232000 and in 2000- 469000. Moreover the distance traveled by all road vehicles has tripled over the same period. The strong growth in road transport has been the case in both the passengers and freight sector.

Road share of the passenger market has risen from 73% % in 1970 to 83% in 2002 at the expense of both rail and bus and coach transport. Road freight has increase its share of inland transport from 52% in 1970 to 75% in2002. All other freight sectors experienced a declining share of freight transport in the EU-15 fell from 30 to 13 % over the period. [41] From all these figures we've seen the real performance of the citizens of European Union

European Automobile Industry

The Auto sector is often credited as the engine room of Europe.. The European Union is the homeland to a competitive and innovative automobile industry that generates activity throughout the economy-from materials and parts supply, to Research and Development and manufacturing, to sales and after-sales services. [42]

The automobile was not invented just in one day and it accounts many years and centuries. The creation of automobile design first was drawn by Leonardo da Vinci and Isaac Newton. Later in 1769 was invented the first self-propelled road vehicle by French inventor Nicolas J. Cugnot, which used steam engine for powering its vehicle. So as we see the history of Automobile industry started from Europe and European inventors were first in this innovation.

Today European Union is the worlds largest producer of motor vehicles. [43]Automobile industry today is one of the biggest employer industries , it employs directly 2 million European Citizens and 10 million are employed in associated industries. Another important issue is Research and Development for Automobile industry, because today it represents the largest investor in this sector and provides for them important support and its investment is much higher then investments from other private sectors.

The aim of European Transport policy as we already have discussed is to reduce the distinguish between different modes of transport and we know that the road transport today is the dominant sector , with highest percentage of usage from the citizens of European Union and has highest share on the transport market . The automobile industry is giving active input to the new revision of Europe's Transport Policy, expected to be defined in the next Commission's term. Manufacturers welcome that the Commission has timely started the preparation of the review, ahead of the expiring of the ten-years scope of the 2001 White Paper. One of the fundamental tenets of the 2001 Transport policy was the concept of modal shift, the idea, that modes other than road transport should be encouraged for the sake of the environment. It also promoted de-coupling road transport from economic growth. [44]

The main objectives of the European Commission regarding the automotive sector are:

• To strengthen the competitiveness of the automotive industry;
• To complete, adapt and simplify the Internal Market regulatory framework;

·

To promote globalization of the technical regulatory framework through UNECE[45]

ACEA, the Assosiaction of European Car Manufactures , established in 1991 and it represents the thirteen major European car, truck and bus manufacturers. All ACEA member companies are key players in the global automotive market and have integrated automobile operations (research, design, development, production and sales) in the European Union, where they produce around 18 million vehicles per year, provide direct employment to 2 million people and support the job of another 10 million fellow workers. ACEA Members are: BMW Group, DAF Trucks, DaimlerChrysler, FIAT, Ford of Europe, General Motors Europe, MAN Nutzfahrzeuge, Porsche, PSA Peugeot Citroën, Renault, Scania, Volkswagen, Volvo Trucks., Jaguar Land Rover, Toyota Motor Europe.[46]

The importance of Automobile industry for Europe

The European automotive industry has long history in Europe and today car manufactors have production in almost all Member States .Europe is the world's largest vehile producer , 1/3 of the 50 million cars produced globally are manufactured in the European Union[47].

According to fiffurs of 2007 ,the European Union was the highest producer of Motor vehicles, in comparison with other big producers of Motor vehicles in the world. ( Table 1)

As the world's largest producer of motor vehicles, the EU's automobile industry is a key driver of growth ,exports, innovations and jobs.

The industry represents 6.5 percent of the EU's manufactoring sector and invests more than 20 billion euro per year in research and development , making in the EU's largest private investor in research and development.

Automotive manufactoring is closely linked with other sectors - key supliers include electronics, mechanical and electrical enginaring, information technology , steel, chemicals, plastics,metals and rubber. 1/5 of the EU's steel and more than a third of its aluminum production go into automobile production. [48]

The automobile industry is one of the biggest employers in European Union. 2.2 million citizens are employed directly in the industry, whre they produce manufacturing, equipment and assecories, trailers ,caravane and etc. And 9.8 million persons are employed in sectors , which are related to the automobile industry, in other manufacturing activities, such as sale and distribution of motor vehicles, sale of motor fuels, renting of atomobiles, manufacture of electrical equipment for engines and vehicles, manufacture of electric motors, generators and transformers, computers and other information processing equipment and etc. ( table 2)

For each Member State automobile industry has their importance.Major automobile markets in Europe: France, Germany,Italy and United Kingdom gain differently from this sector and have their separate and interesting history in auto industry.

France

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French inventors played leading roles in achieving the technological breakthroughs that have made the European industry what it is today. Indeed, Nicolas Joseph Cugnot may well have been the first to build a self-propelled vehicle in 1769 - a steam-driven contraption called a fardier à vapeur. Nearly a century later, Etienne Lenoir received a patent for the first successful internal combustion engine. The creation in 1894 of De Dion-Bouton et Cie laid the foundation of the French auto industry. The company produced its first petrol-engined four-wheeled car in 1899 and by 1900 was the world's largest carmaker with annual production of 400 cars and 3,200 engines. Other French firsts include the issuing of automobile license plates in 1893.

The automotive sector is a key driver of the French economy and the country's leading employer: provides 298000 direct jobs, mainly at PSA and Renault. Equipment suppliers employ a further 128000 people and business, service and recycling companies employ 493000 staff. France is Europe's second largest car producer after Germany and the world's fifth largest behind the United States, Japan, Germany and China.The motor industry's economic impact is therefore quite substantial: in 2005 alone, automotive industry production, including automobiles and automotive equipment totaled more than €90bn, a 64 per cent increase in value since 1996. Automotive products represent 15.4 per cent of French exports. The top two national manufacturers, PSA Peugeot Citroen and Renault, account for over half of the domestic market. Foreign manufacturers are not hugely present in France but Swatch produces in Hambach (Lorraine) and Toyota in Valenciennes (Nord-Pas-de-Calais). Across the country, almost 40 different vehicle models are produced in 21 assembly plants.

It is the largest customer of major industrial sectors such as plastics, industrial rubber, casting and industrial metalworking services. The automotive supply industry's combined turnover is close to €25bn. With 42 per cent of their production earmarked for export, suppliers are very much focused on the international market.[49]

Germany -

Germany has a special relationship with the motor car.In 1901 it was already producing 900 vehicles a year - German engineers such as Karl Benz, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach were pathfinders in the technical development of the internal combustion engine. Germany's famous premium brands of today are coveted around the world. The names of companies such as Porsche, Audi, Mercedes and BMW, as well as the mass market producer, Volkswagen, are synonymous with style and quality. International marques, including Opel (GM) and Ford, are also an important feature on the automotive landscape. Over the past decade, the industry has doubled its revenues and raised its share of manufacturing output from 12 per cent to 19 per cent.

The industry consists of a small number of global lead manufacturers supported by a large number of family-owned small and medium-sized suppliers . It generates a turnover of €226bn and an export surplus of €80bn. Since reunification, auto manufacturing has become a crucial pillar of the East German economy with seven production centres and over 700 local suppliers.

German manufacturers , which includes also Chrysler produced 11.3 million cars in 2006 in 23 countries. German factories turned out 5.8m cars, making it the world's third largest manufacturer after the USA and Japan. Revenues, which have doubled over the last 10 years, amount to €236bn or 10.5 per cent of national GDP.

For German automobile industry is very important employment sector, because every seventh job in Germany depends directly or indirectly on the automotive sector. Some 1.4 million people work in upstream and downstream businesses that are dependent on the automotive sector. One mark of the industry's health is that employment has actually increased by 21 per cent over the past 10 years. While Western Europe remains the focus of production by German vehicle manufacturers and suppliers, national companies also employ a total of 160,000 people across many of the countries that joined the EU in 2004. Their global dimension is marked by establishments in the USA, Mexico and Canada (at over 300 locations) and in China (now running at 140 plants).

Germany's supplier industry is as dynamic as it is diverse. Among its biggest suppliers are ThyssenKrupp Technologies, with operations in 240 locations worldwide, 3M Deutschland, which produces over 1,000 different products for the automotive industry, and Michelin Reifenwerke, which has been present in Germany for over a century. There is a high concentration of component suppliers in supporting sectors such as electronics and electrical engineering, information technology, plastics and glass production, metal manufacture and processing, optics and precision mechanics. Given the priority German car designers attach to incorporating high-performance features in their cars, much emphasis is directed towards advanced electronics, innovative measuring tools, just-in-time logistics, turbo-charging systems, light-weight / high-strength engineering materials, catalytic converters, "smart" engineering and intensive robotic assembly, as well as dedicated software development.[50]

Italy

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There are few countries in Europe , where the motor car is such a strong expression of national and individual identity as in Italy. The nation's obsession with the racing fortunes of Ferrari in Formula One reflects its collective love of speed, excitement and beauty. The look of a car matters much to most Italians which is why the country has long been the source of the world's leading car designers. But during the past century, Italy has also excelled in engineering skills able to develop highly successful low-cost small cars such as the Fiat 500 alongside premium models like Ferrari and Maserati. In the last 30 years these celebrated marques, together with Lancia and Alfa Romeo have been acquired by FIAT, the nation's oldest mass producer of automobiles which now accounts for around 90% of Italian car production .

The automotive sector in Italy contributes a significant 8.5% to Italian GDP - nearly one quarter of the contribution from all manufacturing industries. The sector's total turnover is more than €54bn with a directly-employed labour force of around 200,000 people.

Italy's leading international position owes much to the supplier networks specialising in the production of spare parts and accessories. The Turin area and the Piedmont region as a whole accommodate the nation's most important industrial clusters. More than 470 component makers, 40% of Italy's suppliers are located there ,with 33% of the workforce, with a peak of 75% for suppliers of modules and systems. As a whole, the regional supplier system employs over 43,000 people, about 70% of which is located in the province of Turin.[51]

United Kingdom

- UK's automotive industry's size and importance to the national economy is an impressive example of survival and growth despite the demise over the last 40 years of large-scale national manufacturers. Automotive firms are leaders in many areas of manufacturing in the UK, while the country is home to the world's most successful motor sport industry and a number of leading independent automotive design firms.

The automotive sector in the UK remains diverse, competitive and world-class. Its crucial importance to the economy is reflected in a manufacturing turnover of over £47 billion - in euro 67.4 billion, total direct and indirect employment of 850,000 and a 10% share of national exports. Britain's world-leading design-engineering companies are highly skilled and technologically sophisticated businesses whose products have a truly international penetration. It is estimated that British firms have a 20 per cent share of the independent global market in vehicle design-engineering.

The UK has enjoyed good growth in output of automotive and non-automotive engines. Additional investment by Ford will push up production to over 3.5 million light vehicle engines and up to 400,000 truck and non-automotive engines by the end of the decade.

The core manufacturing, distribution and servicing business in the UK directly generates a turnover value of £200 billion - in euro 287.16. In 2006, UK-based manufacturers produced 1.44 million cars, 53% of them carrying Nissan, Honda and Toyota badges. Output is sustained by a significant domestic market for new cars with annual registrations averaging 2.38 million over the last ten years. The equivalent average for vans, trucks, buses and coaches was 331,700. Underpinning these markets is a highly sophisticated, fiercely competitive retail and service/maintenance sector, employing more than 550,000 people and generating added value of some £22 billion -in euro 31.5 annually.

The West Midlands remains the main location for the UK industry, accounting for just under 30% of total UK car production. The region hosts a number of major automotive assemblers: Jaguar, Land Rover, Aston Martin and MG Rover, with over 50,000 people employed in the sector. Sitting alongside manufacturers of key components from driveline to engines and electrics, are a large number of material processing and general engineering firms providing a significant base of expertise.

Over 2,600 companies are active in the automotive components sector, ranging from the global players to small and medium-sized businesses. Together they contribute over £4.8 billion - in euro 6.9 billion added value and employ some 132,000 people. The sector exports over £6 billion - in euro 8.6 billion worth of goods annually, 75% destined for Europe and over £1 billion - in euro 1.4 billion worth travelling to the Americas. [52]

Second half of 2008 was crusial for European Automobile industry , the banking system hit the economy, the acess to credit was limited for consumers and bussineses, what caused the redusction in car production and usage. During recession , demand for new cars across Europe had dipped a merely 2%, with comercial vehicle sales down just by 0.4%. By the end of the year , markets for all types of vehicles crashed . in the final quarter , car sales fell 19.3%: some member states reported decline of more than 50% in December alome. Demand for new comercial vehicles across Europe decreased by 24%. [53]All these facts had direct impact on European Labor market, such as recession caused job losses across the Europe and European Union tries to solve all these problems and improve situation in automobile industry, by implementing different regulations , directives and strategies.

Policy makers have a responsibility to protect the interests of citizens and safeguard the natural environment. But they also responsible for creating an environment in which businesses thrive. The independent nature of both : business and environment ,objectives is today perhaps more evident than ever.[54]

EU as the worlds biggest motor vehicle producer

EU is the worlds largest motor vehicle producer. It relies a strong automotive sector, that means that financial and economic pressure in this sector will effect whole European economy[55].

By motor vehicle production European Union in 2007 was on the first place, it reported the highest percentage of the production in all over the world - 26.9%, ( table 3) when Japan showed only 15.9% and China 12.2 %. The lowest motor vehicle production in same period was in Russia ,with a 2.3%.

One third of Passenger cars for 2007 was produced by European Union and it was 32% of world whole production, ( table 4) and it was two times more then China's and Japan's production.

Totally motor vehicle production in Europe was 19695044 for 2007, from this number 86.7% was passenger cars production, 9.7% vans production, 3.4%- Trucks and 0.2% Buses production.

All member states have different relations with manufacturer production. Few of them are more advanced, like Germany and France and some less.

Germany according statistic dates of 2008 is the worlds fourth largest manufacturer, after United States, Japan and China. Its automobile industry is very famous all over the world. German's auto brands are very good known for all of us, such as: Mercedes-Benz , BMW, Audi. Porsche, Volkswagen and etc.

For Germany manufacturing is very important. Germany's economy very much depends on automobile industry, because every seventh person is employed in this sector directly or indirectly.

Another big and important player in automobile industry is France, which is second largest producer in Europe after Germany and fifth largest in the world, after United States, Japan, China and Germany.

French inventors have leading role in automobile industry, already from history. Countries economy also very much depends on this sector, same as in Germany for France auto sector is important employer. It employs almost 300000 persons directly and more than 600 00 indirectly, in other related sectors.

Few figures from table ( table 6)can illustrate the importance of Germany's automotive industry for European Union. In Germany for 2007, car production was the highest in whole European Union , by 5,7 million, what was two times more, in comparison with France's 2.6 million and Spain's 2.2 million

Germany has many advantages in different fields for automobile industry, such as: personal advantages, market advantage, technological, stable investment environment, physical infrastructure and etc.

Personal advantages debunks in labor force of Germany. Germany's excellent highly-skilled labor force has been the key to success for the German automotive industry. Benefiting from the country's unique education system geared to meet industry needs, the industry can count on a direct workforce of almost 750,000 highly-trained and experienced people.

Another important advantage is the market. Germany hosts the largest concentration of Origin Equipment Manufacturer plants in Europe - creating considerable production volume, client and product diversification advantages for suppliers. Established suppliers in Germany are able to access nine different OEMs and their respective decision centers, 25 assembly plants (an impressive one third of Europe's total installed capacity) as well as production facilities of almost all top

100 tier 1 suppliers.

Speaking about technological advantages we have to mention that from machine building to electronics, Germany is the technological leader in all automotive-related industries.

Another important advantage of Germany as we already mentioned is physical infrastructure. Located at the heart of Europe, Germany offers a sophisticated infrastructure that integrates state-of-the-art transportation networks with the most modern and cost efficient information technology ( IT ) and telecommunications systems available today. German's infrastructure is this world class infrastructure which supports the continued success of the highly efficient and smooth operating automotive logistics environment. [56]

The highest result of passenger car production in Europe was in 2007 , which accounted 17082037 cars and it was higher then previous years production by 5.5%.

World economic recession very hard effected the Automobile industry of Europe in 2008. Production and demand for European vehicles ,which had grown in 2007, began to dip in the first half of 2008. The reason of that was the general slowdown and of course of high oil process .

In 2008 the highest Motor Vehicle production In Europe reported again Germany, with 32% of whole production, the second highest producers were Spain and France - 14% at this period and then came such as countries as Belgium, Poland, Czech republic, Italy and United king