The Tourism Trends In Mauritius Tourism Essay

Published Date: 23 Mar 2015

Nowadays tourism has become the major focus, mainly for small developing countries which have an effect on local people in terms of socio-cultural, environmental and economical impacts. Resident's perceptions are very important and there is a need to understand how these perceptions can contribute towards tourism development. The reason of this study is to provide a theoretical background for assessing local people attitudes on the impacts of tourism development in Bel Ombre, Mauritius. Tourism and sustainable development are interrelated; and has been usually identified with the fast rising demand of tourists acting together with the natural environment. Tourism has the capability to protect as well as to destroy a destination. Studying the impacts of tourism is a critical element of accepting how tourism affects the economy, socio-cultural and environment aspects in Mauritius. A well elaborated literature shows the character of the main interaction of tourist and host, uniqueness of host-tourist relationship and their connection with the impacts generated by tourism development. Researchers were more interested towards the interaction between the tourists and the local people. Though, there are preceding studies that have considered the issue from tourist perspective. To achieve the purpose of this study a questionnaire was designed and a survey was undertaken among the local residents. Concerning the analysis part, quantitative approach was useful and the aim and objectives were related to the majority of relevant literature.

1.2 Problem statement

The main reason for doing this study is because tourism is one of the major sectors in many countries, including Mauritius, with the highest growth potential. It is the world's largest employer and one among the major sources of substantial foreign exchange earnings (Blank, 1991; Richards, 2003; Mwandosya, 2007). It is through this observation that many people believe that the industry is well placed as one of the major means through which development of local communities can be achieved (Scheyvens, 2002; Beeton, 2006). One approach to enhance this development through tourism is to involve local communities and ensure that their potential role is tapped and maintained through active participation in the industry (Beeton, 2006). It is imperative to note that involvement and participation of these communities is central to the sustainable development of the industry not only because tourism has had a close connection with the local communities, particularly as hosts and guides (Scheyvens, 2002), but also because "the destinations of tourists are communities and it is in the community that tourism happens" (Blank, 1989 p.115).

Participation is a process through which stakeholders, among them the local communities who are often the intended beneficiaries of community tourism, influence and share control over development initiatives and the decisions and resources which affect them (Havel, 1996). Participation, therefore, seeks collaboration or partnerships and the commitment necessary to ensure sustainability of tourism development initiatives (Wolfensohn, 1996). Paradoxically, the outcomes of participation are usually a reflection of a certain level of involvement of relevant stakeholders in the decision-making process which in turn enables people to make informed commitments to a particular tourism project (Havel, 1996). According to Akama (1999) as cited in Manyara and Jones (2007, p.629), "local communities are hardly involved in tourism development" and they are usually without a voice in the development process (Havel, 1996). This situation according to Mbaiwa (2005) is contrary to the principles of sustainable tourism

development which, among other things, emphasize the involvement and participation of local communities.

1.3 Aims and Objectives of the study

The aim of this study is to assess the resident's attitudes and perceptions about the impacts caused by tourism development in Bel Ombre.

The objectives of the study are:

To assess the extent of local people's perceptions and attitudes in the tourism development

To assess the positive and negative impacts of tourism development

To assess the extent of local people's involvement and participation in tourism development in their local areas

To investigate if local people are aware of the impacts of tourism development.

1.4 Tourism trends in Mauritius

Since the 1990s, Mauritius adopted economic reforms aimed at establishing a market-based and private-sector-driven economy that marked significant growth in many sectors of the country's economy. Such reforms for example, helped to improve the performance of the country's tourism industry and enhanced growth of the sector through improved marketing and promotional campaigns, improved tourism services, improved air access to Mauritius, accommodation facilities, and other tourism supporting infrastructures. More specifically, growth in the Mauritian tourism industry can be measured by looking at the trends in tourism receipts, tourist arrivals, tourism annual growth, number of hotels and hotel rooms, contribution of the sector to country's GDP, and direct jobs created by the industry. To give a clear picture of the performance of the tourism industry in Mauritius and to be able to gauge the achievements already realized by the industry.

While the tourism industry continues to be one of the key foreign exchange earners in Mauritius, the industry depends primarily on the flow of international tourists to the country. The country's main source markets are Britain, Germany, the United States, Italy, France, Spain, and some new markets emerging around China and Asian countries. The majority of international tourists come to Mauritius for cultural, adventure and beach resort all together making Mauritius a quality destination.

It is, however, interesting to note from the statistics below that, in Mauritius, earnings from international tourism have grown more rapidly than tourist arrivals in nominal terms due to the to promote Mauritius as a high quality destination. Arguably, the increasing tourist numbers to Mauritius may be a convincing indication of increasing opportunities for local communities to earn revenue from tourism and these revenue opportunities could eventually contribute significantly to greater local interest in the development of the industry (Victurine, 2000).

Table 1:- Tourist arrivals, nights and receipts, 2009 - 2012

Year

Tourist arrivals (Number)

Tourist nights (000)

Tourism receipts 1 (Rs million)

 

2009

871,356

8,639

35,693

 

2010

934,827

9,495

39,456

 

2011

964,642

9,730

42,717 3

2009

1st Qr.

232,908

2,250

10,265

 

2nd Qr.

180,596

1,791

7,984

 

1st Semester

413,504

4,041

18,249

 

3rd Qr.

195,381

2,280

7,436

 

4th Qr.

262,471

2,318

10,008

2nd Semester

457,852

4,598

17,444

2010

1st Qr.

249,971

2,943

11,021

 

2nd Qr.

189,179

1,855

8,788

1st Semester

439,150

4,798

19,809

 

3rd Qr.

207,506

2,275

8,358

 

4th Qr.

288,171

2,422

11,289

 

2nd Semester

495,677

4,697

19,647

2011

1st Qr.

262,626

2,960

11,949

 

2nd Qr.

201,978

1,975

9,355

 

1st Semester

464,604

4,935

21,304

 

3rd Qr.

209,779

2,325

8,845

 

4th Qr.

290,259

2,470

12,568 3

 

2nd Semester

500,038

4,795

21,413 3

2012 2

1st Qr.

261,995

2,950

13,768 3

 

2nd Qr.

205,158

2,010

9,780

 

1st Semester

467,153

4,960

23,548

 

 

 

 

 

Source: www.gov.mu

1.5 Outline of Study

Chapter 1- Introduction

This chapter gives an overview of the study and the outline of the dissertation. It includes the introduction, problem statement, aims and objectives of the research.

Chapter 2- Literature Review

The literature review entails the theoretical background; the main aim in writing this is to assess existing literature related to the study, what other researchers have done, including empirical evidence to provide a foundation to the study. It consists of all the theoretical aspects like the perceptions and attitudes of local people towards tourism development. The impacts of tourism development are also discussed along with how the community participation can reduce or increase these tourism impacts.

Chapter 3- Methodology

This comprises of the methodology of how the research was conducted, the questionnaire design, method used to collect the data, sampling techniques used, the data analysis and limitations of the study.

Chapter 4- Results and Discussions

In this chapter the data collected through the use of questionnaires, will be analysed by making use of graphical, mean and standard deviation. Package for the Social Science (SPSS) Software was used to make these analyses.

Chapter 5- Recommendations and Conclusions

The last chapter identifies the possible solution to come across for the problems of the poor involvement of locals. The perceptions of residents on the impacts generated from tourism development, thus leading to the conclusion of the project.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter seeks to address a number of issues related to community involvement and participation in the tourism industry by examining some key points emerging from various studies, reports and other sources of information. It starts with a discussion about the perceptions and attitudes of host community towards the impacts of tourism development. Some critics about Doxey Irridex Model and Butler Tourism Area life cycle will also be discussed. The chapter also identifies factors which influence local communities and attract their participation in the tourism industry. It continues with a discussion about the tourism impacts that arise due tourism development in a small community. The chapter concludes by highlighting key issues raised by the literature that form the basis of this research.

2.2 Sustainable Tourism Development

Sustainable tourism development (STD) is a long-term approach that cultivates economically viable tourism without harming residents' environment or society while simultaneously ensuring fair distribution of costs and benefits (DBEDT, 2006a). Decisions are based on economic, environmental, and cultural impacts; how wealth is generated and distributed; and the relative power and interactions among the stakeholders (Bramwell, 2006; Twining-Ward & Butler, 2002). STD balances industry's goal of profit with the needs of the environment and stakeholders (Bramwell, 2006). Stakeholder cooperation is necessary for sustainable tourism; otherwise only the most powerful will benefit (Dyer, Gursoy, Sharma, & Carter, 2007). To keep stakeholders satisfied with tourism development and their community, the environment and culture must be protected (Ahn et al., 2002; Hjalager, 1996). When tourism development enhances, rather than erodes the natural environment, a more sustainable tourism product can be offered to support the destination's economy (Batra & Kaur, 1996).

A government that effectively manages tourism creates benefits for all stakeholders (Jamal & Getz, 1995). Effective management is avoiding negative impacts through a combination of general protective measures; regulations to control development; and financial restraints (Cohen, 1978; Hjalager, 1996). Improvement of the environment can be achieved by ensuring that development is harmonious with the overall plan for the destination (Batra & Kaur, 1996). Necessary tourism infrastructure such as roads, airports, parks, and visitor centers are also the responsibility of government (Jamal & Getz, 1995). Maintenance of infrastructure and facilities is expensive and residents, through property taxes, should not be the only group to bear this burden (Wong, 1996). Residents benefit when tourists spend money in the local economy and create jobs, as well as from the development of infrastructure that residents also utilize (Wong, 1996).

Residents in mass tourism destinations such as Hawai'i depend on tourism for their standard of living (Liu, Sheldon, & Var, 1987). Because tourism development usually involves a tradeoff between economic benefits and environmental or cultural costs, residents cope by downplaying the negative impacts based and emphasizing the economic gains to maintain satisfaction with their community (Dyer et al., 2007; Cavus & Tanrisevdi, 2003; Faulkner & Tideswell, 1997). Residents with the most economic gain are the most supportive of the tourism industry (Harrill, 2004).

Cavus & Tanrisevdi (2003) found that the development process controlled by planners was the primary factor in residents' negative attitudes towards tourism. When residents perceive that the costs of tourism outweigh the benefits, feelings of resentment and irritation towards tourists can develop and lower community satisfaction (Doxey, 1975; Faulkner & Tideswell, 1997; Ko & Stewart, 2002). Residents who feel that they have a voice in tourism planning are more positive towards tourism (Cavus & Tanrisevdi, 2003). According to Choi & Sirakaya (2005), sustainable tourism is the development pathway to minimize the negative impacts of tourism. There are many ways to make tourism more sustainable but few tools for evaluating and testing a sustainable tourism framework (Choi & Sirakaya, 2005). Audits and resource valuation evaluate tourism's costs and benefits so that they can be fairly distributed to stakeholders (Warnken et al., 2004; Wen, 1998). Limiting tourism growth (such as carrying capacity or limits of acceptable change) can also make development more sustainable (Cohen, 1978; Butler, 1980; Gössling, Peeters, Ceron, Dubois, Patterson, & Richardson, 2005; Christensen & Beckmann, 1998; Ahn et al., 2002). In these approaches, government management and stakeholder cooperation are necessary to reach a consensus for how to manage future tourism development. This is why Understanding residents' perceptions are critical to fairly distributing the environmental, social, and economic costs and benefits of tourism; thus, ultimately increasing sustainable tourism development (Twining-Ward & Butler, 2002).

2.3 Host Community Attitudes and Perceptions about Tourism Development

This study aims at identifying the relationships between residents' socio- cultural, economic and environmental aspect and their attitudes towards tourism by focusing on a small community where tourism is in the development stage. By conducting this research, the author hopes to come across the residents' attitudes and capture their current perceptions about tourism development in their area. Moreover, this research is being done because most authors agree that initial community attitudes toward tourism are critical to community involvement in the industry (Murphy 1981), the formation of destination image (Echtner & Ritchie 1991).

Attitudes are defined as "a state of mind of the individual toward a value" (Allport 1966, p. 24) and as "an enduring predisposition towards a particular aspect of one's environment" (McDougall & Munro 1987, p. 87). Attitude of host community to tourism based development can improve if there is a boost in the tangible and indescribable settlements the host community can receive by being in based development (Choi & Sirakaya, 2006). As Attitudes are based under this understanding, this is why some researchers came to a conclusion that residents' attitudes toward tourism are not simply the reflections of residents' perceptions of tourism impacts, but the results of interaction between residents' perceptions and the factors affecting their attitudes (Lankford et al.1994). Some preceding researches have proved that some most important impacts of tourism are identified along with its variables, however the theory is underdeveloped: "Currently there is limited understanding of why residents respond to the impacts of tourism as they do, and under what conditions residents react to those impacts" (Ap 1992, p. 666). Husband (1989) also addressed this issue by saying "There is, so far, no theoretical justification of why some people are, or are not, favorably disposed to tourism".

Various issues can persuade perceptions of the host community about positive outcomes of tourism development. Support will depend on the degree of benefits perceived. The participation of community will be discussed later on in the literature review. The acceptance of local values can also be an important factor that leads to the achievement of a tourism based development (Alexander, 2000). However over a certain period of time many findings detected that host community perceptions' in the direction from tourism may have more positive attitudes. People who depend on tourism industry or having a better economic benefit may possibly have a higher degree of positivity than other inhabitants who do not benefit from a tourism development (lankford and howard, 1994; Jurowski, Uysal, and willimas, 1997; Sirakaya , Teye and Sonmez,2002 ).

Lindberg and Johnson (1997) mentioned that people having higher economic impacts from tourism may have more positive attitudes. However Travis (1984) has stated that it's not only an economic characteristic such as the opportunity for jobs creation or capital generation that needs to be considered by the host community. The socio-cultural and environmental aspects are also very important. For Choi and Sirakaya (2005), the most community should also have a better environment in term of infrastructures and improved amenities such as leisure and recreational activities. They describe tourism as consisting of various supports and any development in the tourism field should ensure the protection of the culture of host community, alongside the protection of the environment.

In order to clarify the relationship between the impacts of tourism and residents' attitudes toward tourism, several models have been developed. One of the most influential models is Doxey's Irridex model (1975) which suggests that residents' attitudes toward tourism may pass through a series of stages from "euphoria," through "apathy" and "irritation." to "antagonism," as perceived costs exceed the expected benefits. This model is supported by Long et al.'s (1990) research results, which indicate residents' attitudes, are initially favorable but become negative after reaching a threshold.

To have a better comprehension about the relationship between the impacts of tourism and residents' attitudes toward tourism, several models like Butler Tourism Life cycle Area and Doxey Irridex model have been developed. One of the most dominant models is Doxey's Irridex model (1975) which suggests that residents' attitudes toward tourism may pass through a series of stages from "euphoria," through "apathy" and "irritation." to "antagonism," as perceived costs exceed the expected benefits. This model was supported by Long et al.'s (1990) research results, which indicated that residents' attitudes are initially favorable but become negative after reaching a threshold. The Irridex model indicates that residents' attitudes toward tourism will change overtime. It suggests that residents' attitudes and reactions toward tourism contain a sense of homogeneity (Mason et al. 2000). Conversely, this concept was challenged by some research findings that reported heterogeneous community responses and diverse residents' attitudes simultaneously existing in a community (Brougham et al. 1981,Rothman 1978).

2.4 Critics about Doxey Irridex Model and Butler Tourism Area Life cycle

Butler (1980) took a more complicated approach. He argued that tourist areas go through a recognizable cycle of evolution; he used an S-shaped curve to illustrate their different stages of popularity. Butler stated that there are six stages through which tourist areas pass. These include the exploration stage, involvement stage, development stage, consolidation stage, stagnation stage, and decline stage. His study also reveals that evolution is brought about by a variety of factors, including changes in preferences and needs of visitors, the gradual deterioration and possible replacement of physical plant and facilities, and the change of the original natural and cultural attractions, which is responsible for the initial popularity of the area. Furthermore this model is supported by Murphy's (1983) research results, which reveal the distinct attitude differences among residents, public officials, and business owners in three English tourist centers. Although Butler's model addresses the difficulty of residents' attitudes toward tourism, researchers still lacked theories explaining relationships between residents' attitudes and tourism impacts until Ap (1992) applied social exchange theory to tourism.

2.5 Social Exchange Theory

According to the theory, exchange will start, only when there are irregular inaction forms. Ap (1992) suggests that "residents evaluate tourism in terms of social exchange, that is, evaluate it in terms of expected benefits or costs obtained in return for the services they supply" He also argued that when exchange of resources is high for the host actor in either the balanced or unbalanced exchange relation, tourism impacts are viewed positively, while tourism impacts are viewed negatively if exchange of resources is low. Social exchange theory has been examined as a theoretical framework by researchers to describe residents' attitudes toward tourism impacts (Perdue et al. 1990, McGehee & Andereck 2004).

However mason and Cheyen (2000) stated that that the representation of Butler 'assumes a degree of homogeneity of community reaction'. Butler (2006) supported his model by suggesting that 'a consistent evolution of tourist area can be conceptualized'. Different phases at a particular destination may not be understood without mistakes. The demonstration hence should be concerned only to some extent as the phase itself differs from one tourist area to anotherb(Tosun,2002).

The Doxey irridex model gives a clear view of how host community attitude changes over a period of time. It mentions host community perceptions, reactions and attitudes in the direction of tourism (Manson et al.2000). This can be a conflicting principle because some research came to a conclusion that various host community attitudes and perceptions may exist in the community, (Brougham et al.1981, Rothman 1978). Akis, Peristanis & Warner (1996) disapprove the Irridex Model and The Tourism Life Cycle and view it as too simple, because both models give a few hint of changing host community perceptions and attitudes over time. Other researchers like Lankford and Howard (1994, P.135) opposed against the model of Doxey(1975) because positive and negative factors that affect the perceptions and attitudes of host community are not given much consideration.

As the tourism industry keeps on changing, this may be a reason why we must give this industry continuous support for its related development. Andereck & vogt( 2000) stated that it is considered that optimistic attitudes towards tourism may entail the encouragement for further tourism development. If there is any delay in tourism project development this can be due to frustration towards tourists. Mill and Morisson (1984) even mention that, 'an acceptance of tourism cannot be built unless the benefits of tourism are made relevant to the community'. Attitudes and perceptions of host community at a destination is of utmost importance in the accomplishment of tourism development alongside the development of the industry at large also, (Hayword,1975), (Heenan, 1978), and Hiller (1976).

There is a broad belief perception and attitudes of host community in the direction of tourism outcomes are apt to become essential planning and policy concern for flourishing development and expansion of existing and potential tourism programs, (Ap,1992). Host community attitudes and perception is very important as it will influence their behavior towards tourism, (Andriotis and Vaughan, 2003).

2.6 Host community involvement and participation

Community participation has become a common element in many development initiatives, such as community-based programmes, which assume participatory methods and has been promoted by development organizations, notably the World Bank, to address the inefficiency of highly centralized development approaches particularly in the developing world (Baral and Heinen, 2007).

Today, many development initiatives solicit the participation of all concerned stakeholders, at the relevant level, not only for the sake of efficiency and equity of the programmes, leverage of donors and demands of local communities, but also for sustainability of these initiatives (Ribot, 2004). Consequently, the real outcome for soliciting such community participation is to create and produce an enabling environment needed by these stakeholders, especially local communities who have been vulnerable to negative impacts of tourism attributed partly to the fact that many tourism resources occur in their areas, to have a real stake in development activities (Havel, 1996; Songorwa, 1999). This requires involving local communities in decision-making and strengthening their ability to act for themselves. One approach to achieve this is "through investments in human capital, such as education and health, investments in social capital such as local-level institutions and participatory processes, and support for community based development efforts planned and implemented from bottom up" (Havel, 1996, p.145). However, given the fact that the central point underlying people's participation may be the degree of power distribution, these efforts are less likely to succeed unless responsive institutions and the legal and policy framework that facilitate and support local participation are in place (Havel, 1996; Tosun, 2004; Wang and Wall, 2005).

It is probably important to insist from here that a key consideration in tourism development is sustainability, which cannot be achieved without community support (Vincent and Thompson, 2002). While sustainability is the core objective of community participation (Vincent and Thompson, 2002; Johannesen and Skonhoft, 2005), proponents of community tourism further argue that community participation seeks to improve the welfare of the local community and, perhaps most importantly, win their support in conservation of tourism resources (Songorwa, 1999). This means community participation is inevitable and imperative for tourism development because most tourist attractions lie within local communities or in their vicinities and in most cases co-exist side by side with the communities, for instance, in wildlife areas.

Community participation via decision-making is an essential determinant to ensure that the benefits that local communities get from tourism are guaranteed, and their lifestyles and values are respected. It is, however, important to note that community participation in decision making is not only desirable but also necessary so as to maximize the socio-economic benefits of tourism for the community. It is perhaps one of the most important elements of tourism management to enable communities who often serve as tourist destinations and for that matter suffer from the negative impacts of tourism, to get involved and eventually participate in planning decisions regarding tourism development. This is important in order to create better handling of the negative impacts of tourism development (Li, 2004; Tosun, 2000). It is equally important to note, therefore, that integration of local communities into the decision-making process is "not a final goal itself" but only one of the many ways through which community participation can be achieved (Li, 2005, p.133).

Another way to involve and attract community participation and ultimately their support in tourism development is through local job creation (Zhao and Ritchie, 2007). Since tourism offers better labour-intensive and small scale opportunities (Chok and Macbeth, 2007; Scheyvens, 2007) and since it happens in the community, arguably, it is thought to be one of the best placed potential sources of employment opportunities for local communities, inclusive of women and the informal sector (Blank, 1989; Li, 2005; Johannesen and Skonhoft, 2005; Scheyvens, 2007). Community participation via employment opportunities, as workers or as small business operators, can be a catalyst to the development of tourism products and services, arts, crafts and cultural values, especially through taking advantage of abundant natural and cultural assets available in communities in developing countries (Scheyvens, 2007). Tosun (2000) stated that community participation through working in the tourism industry has been recognized to help local communities not only to support development of the industry but also to receive more than economic benefits.

However, it is important to understand that in some cases community participation is seen as a way of getting people to carry out activities or share their costs while the benefits are not clear to those expected to participate (Havel, 1996). This implies that a key factor to the success of any community-based tourism project is the incentive to benefit sharing which is usually attractive enough to make people highly motivated to participate. As Havel (1996) asserted "people will not participate unless they believe it is their interest to do so"

Involvement and participation of the community in decision-making is advocated so that communities can have some control over tourism resources, initiatives and decisions that affect their livelihood (Wang, and Wall, 2005). On the other hand, the idea of involvement and participation of local communities in the tourism benefits is easily reflected in increasing incomes, employment, and education of local communities about tourism and entrepreneurship (Timothy, 1999). One way to accomplish this is to increase public awareness of tourism through education campaigns and train local communities for employment in the industry. While increased public awareness creates a more hospitable environment for tourists and improves the image of the destination, providing entrepreneurial training empowers local communities and ultimately increases their capacity to receive significant benefits from tourism (Timothy, 1999). This enables tourism-oriented businesses and locals such as taxi drivers, guesthouse managers, restaurant owners, and street vendors, the opportunity to work successfully and efficiently in the industry.

2.7 Barriers to community involvement and participation

The overall outcome of such barriers is often the communities' limited enthusiasm towards the industry thereby resulting in little benefits that trickle down to the grass-roots, the local community (Manyara and Jones, 2007). Tosun (2000) identified a wide range of obstacles to community participation in the context of developing countries. He categorised these obstacles into operational, cultural and structural limitations. Those categorized as operational limitations include the centralization of public administration of tourism development, lack of co-ordination between involved parties and lack of information made available to the local people of the tourist destination as attributed to, but not limited to, insufficient data and poor dissemination of information. Under these conditions, low public involvement in the tourism development process is obvious as people are not well-informed. Those categorised as structural impediments include institutional, power structure, legislative, and economic systems. They mostly impact negatively on the emergence and implementation of the participatory tourism development approach. And those identified as cultural limitations include limited capacity of the poor to effectively handle development.

The fact that the majority of people in developing countries struggle to meet their basic and felt needs and that mere survival occupies all their time and consumes their energy, implies that getting closely involved in issues of community concern such as community participation in the tourism development process which often demands time and energy, may be a luxury that they cannot afford. On the other side of the coin, apathy and a low level of awareness in the local community is generally accepted. While a low level of interest in taking part in matters beyond their immediate family domain (apathy) can be partly attributed to many years or centuries of exclusion from socio-cultural, economic and political affairs that impact their dignity, a low level of awareness of such issues stops the poor from demanding that their needs be accommodated by the institutions which serve them.

2.8 Impacts of Tourism

The objective of this point is to consider the impacts of tourists on destinations areas from an economic, social and physical perspective. The nature and implications of these effects will be discussed. The rapid growth of tourism has increased economic, environmental and social effects. Until recently the attention has concentrated on the economic impacts and not on the environmental and social consequences of tourism.

The impact made by tourism depends upon the volume and characteristics of the tourists such as length of stay, activity, mode of transport and travel arrangement. A selection of variables must also be taken into account in the determination of any impact of tourism as well as their interrelationships and the ways in which they influence the nature, direction and magnitude of tourist impacts.

2.8.1 Negative Economic impacts of Tourism

Tourism can create jobs, provide foreign exchange, produce return on investment for emerging economics, bring technology, and improve living standards. The most prominent benefits used to promote tourism development are the economic benefits that communities can expect to derive from an increase in tourism activity. The studies demonstrate that residents feel tourism helps the economy (Ritchie,1988), that tourism increases the standard of living of host residents. Services of all kinds are established and offered to tourists, who in turn also serve local residents and tourism generates the force to improve and further develop community infrastructure and community service (Var & Kim, 1990). However, tourism contributes to resentment concerning the employment of non-locals in managerial and professional positions (Var & Kim, 1990). Tourism is related to foreign domination of tourist services and facilities, increases in the cost of land and housing, increases in prices of goods and services, increases in food and land prices, and shortage of certain commodities.

Loss of labour

With the rapid development of tourism, people involved in traditional jobs like farming, fishing and agriculture may leave these jobs to work in the tourism industry where there is more prospectus. So this can cause a lack of labour in the primary sector.

Enclave Tourism

With the tourism industry there is a rise in the local businesses but their profit are sometimes reduced with the all-inclusive package. As the tourists will get every thing that he needs in the resort, there is no need for him to spend his money out of the resort. Consequently reduces the chance for local people to earn from tourism.

Leakage

Some Government often gives tax holidays to attract investors. But sometimes when these investors make profit they send it back to their home country instead of reinvesting it back into the economy. So nothing else is left for the host country as there may be low revenue and profit after taxes and the high cost of imports to meet the needs and demand of tourists.

Infrastructure cost

Tourism development costs a lot of money to the government. Tourism developers may want the government to improve infrastructures that will be beneficial to the tourism industry. Spending on infrastructure may decrease the ability of a government to invest in other important sectors like Health and Education.

Increase in prices

Tourism makes the prices of commodities, properties and land higher which consequently cause inflation. Local people are having no alternative; they have to pay higher prices for goods and services even though their income does not increase proportionally. It is a fact that tourism pushes up prices of accommodation and food, and the result of the negative effects of tourism development is the moving away of local people from the areas because they cannot afford it longer. Then tourism can cause poverty and the eventual displacement of local people that are replaced by the immigration of wealthy foreigners and retirees.

2.8.2 Positive Economic impacts of tourism

Employment Generation

Tourism creates jobs directly through hotel, restaurants and taxis. Indirect jobs are created through the supply of goods and services needed by tourism-related businesses.

Foreign Exchange Earnings

Tourists spending and the exportation of related goods and services generate revenue in terms of foreign currency to the host economy. This source of revenue can be used to finance other economic sectors of a country and even increase the standard of living of local people.

2.8.3 Socio-cultural Impacts

Even though tourism contributes to the renaissance of traditional arts and craft (Var & Kim, 1990), tourism has frequently been criticized for the disruption of traditional social and culture structures and behavioral patterns. Destination areas that have embraced tourism for its economic benefits have witnessed heightened levels of crime and prostitution, and displacement due to rising land costs and loss of the cultural heritage of local people, particularly youth. Tourism has been charged not only with the debasement of socio-cultural factors but also with degradation of the environment.

2.8.4 Negative socio-cultural impacts

Tourism development can have negative impacts at local, national and international level if they are badly and managed. Some of the most important negative impacts are as follows:

Overcrowding

Tourism increases traffic congestion and crowdedness in the public area, and brings social problems. During the peak season there can be hostility between visitors and host communities, as the local people may be force to tolerate the inconvenience of interruption to their daily habits.

Demonstration Effect

Demonstration effect occurs when there is the mixing of people from broadly different cultures in tourism. The local people try to imitate the lifestyle of those visitors. This can lead to irreversible change in social like there can be the lost of native languages and traditional dress may also be considered as outdated.

Loss of traditional Industries

Traditional industries such as fishing, farming and forestry might be lost. This may happen if workers find it more advantageous to work in the tourism industry. Youngsters are more and more to work in promising industry like tourism where they can be empowered and get money with less effort needed as compared to the traditional ones.

Fragmentation of Communities

Regions which have come popular due to the tourism industry may be later become a second home for rich communities. Expatriates, who have the power to pay for high prices of land and housing, may cause a situation where local people are compelled to move from these places as they cannot afford the high prices of commodities also.

Rise in social problems and crime

Tourism also contributes to social ills such as begging, gambling, drug trafficking, and prostitution, as well as the uprooting of traditional society, and causes deterioratin of the traditional culture and customs of host countries. Tourism contributes to an undesirable increase in the consumption of alcohol, increased traffic congestion, and overcrowding.

2.8.5 Positive Socio-Cultural impacts of Tourism.

One of the major reasons why tourists travel is for social and cultural experiences. The exchange of culture between the local people and the tourists or even visiting cultural sites and meeting new people can create positive impacts on travelers.

The host community can take advantage of the socio-cultural impacts of tourism in the sense that visitors get direct contact with host community and to experience the way of life of these visitors.

Tourism can help to increase the standard of living of the local people. For example tourism can help in the development and creation of community facilities and services that would not be present without tourism.

The socio-cultural aspect of tourism can also benefit from tourism. Tourists can contribute towards maintaining and sustaining cultural traditions and the conservation of heritage sites.

2.8.6 Environmental Impacts of Tourism

The impact of tourism on the environment implies that residents may view tourism as having either a positive or negative impact on their environment. Some people believe that tourism helps to create a greater awareness and appreciation for the need to preserve the environment to capture its natural beauty for tourist purposes, and increase investments in the environmental infrastructure of the host country. Tourism is also thought to be a clean industry, without the pollution problems associated with other types of economic development. Residents have expressed agreement with statements that suggest that tourism improves the appearance of their town or surroundings.

Negative Environmental Impacts of tourism

Pollution

Air pollution occurs because of emissions from vehicles and airplanes. In rural areas, air pollution due to tourism is minimal, but in congested areas, emissions harm vegetation, soil, and visibility. Water resources are a prime attraction for tourism and recreational developments, and they frequently suffer negative impacts. Water pollution is primarily a result of wastewater generated by tourist facilities. Water pollution occurs on inland lakes and streams and in the marine environment. Much of this pollution, such as septic tank seepage, lawn fertilizer, road oil, and run off from disturbed soil, is not serious (Gartner, 1987).

Solid Waste

The tourism industry is responsible for massive waste products. Hotels, airlines, attractions and other related businesses that serve tourists throw away tons of garbage a year. The problem seems to be particularly troublesome in third world countries with less sophisticated solid waste management programs and technologies (Andereck, 1995). Lankford and Howard's (1994) study showed that the majority of respondents felt that tourism brings more littering and waste problems.

The excess use of flora and fauna by their tourists and their vehicles may lead to ecological destruction. Animals may leave their natural habitats as they are on constant pressure from tourism.

2.8.8 Positive Environmental Impacts

Tourism can help destinations to preserve natural resources ancient monuments and national parks. Tourism can act as a boost to embellish the environment of a destination, like better infrastructure, lighting and more green spaces. Improvement of the environment can help local people to promote a positive image of their country. But sometimes the local people need to be empowered to make them aware about the benefits of preserving the environment. Finally government must impose severe laws concerning the preservation of the environment.

2.9 Conclusion

The literature has revealed that community participation has become a key element in many development projects and that the concept has its roots in development studies. Furthermore, it has underlined that tourism is a well-placed poverty reduction tool that if used properly can contribute significantly in efforts towards poverty alleviation, especially in developing countries.

While involvement and participation of communities in the tourism industry can be viewed in the decision-making process and in the sharing of tourism benefits, community participation through employment brings more economic benefits directly to the household level which, in turn, can be used to alleviate widespread poverty. To achieve this, the literature has suggested that encouraging and empowering community participation is required. This research examines these key aspects of community participation and tourism impacts associated with tourism development by using a case study of a local community in the village of Bel Ombre, Mauritius.

Chapter 3

Research Methodology

3.1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to investigate about the impacts caused by Tourism Development in a community. This will be done by discussing the research questions, objectives, data collection methods, sampling techniques and questionnaire design. The limitations of the research are also described.

3.2 Research Design

There exist two main types of data and they are mainly primary data and secondary data. For the purpose of this study, both primary and secondary data were used. The main source of primary data collection was a questionnaire design to investigate about impacts caused by Tourism Development in a community. The main secondary sources were journals and e-books downloaded from Emerald, Elselvier and sage website.

3.2.1 Primary data collection

Data collection was done only by the author in the village of Bel Ombre. The primary data collection for this study was done by a survey questionnaires. Primary data collection was done at the end of October 2012 and it lasted for two weeks. In general 320 questionnaires were printed but only 258 were filled which represents a response rate of 86%.

3.2.2 Secondary data collection

In order to compare and analyze the results, I had to use secondary data, mainly like some documents provided to us by the management of certain travel and tourism organizations, Central Statistical Office, The Ministry of Tourism and Leisure, MTPA, e-journals, articles on the net and books from libraries. However, various costs were incurred namely transport costs in order to keep in touch with the managers for updates mostly.

3.3 Sample Size

As there is huge number of people visiting eco tourism destination everyday, the sample size was calculated as 300, with a confidence interval of 95% and a tolerance of 5% error. The sample size was calculated on Raosoft which is a software used to calculate sample size. So, the author decided to print 320 questionnaires as Raosoft advice only the least number of questionnaires to be used. Basically, the sampling method used was the non-probability convenience sampling due to its convenience in reaching more customers and this method is also less expensive.

Among the 320 questionnaires, 14 questionnaires were not properly filled while 6 others were left blank as very often some respondents do not want to participate or did not have time to fill them in. Hence, the author considered only 300 questionnaires. The response rate was 93.75% almost through the questionnaire.

3.4 Research Instrument

For purpose of our study, the research instrument we decided to use is the Questionnaire. A standardized questionnaire has been opted for the inhabitants so as to get quicker and more complete answers, that is, all questions would have been responded. The survey was done face to face with the correspondent, as he or she might better able to answer certain questions if ever something is not much clear to him/her. Thus s/he will get personal assistance from the author. As per the author's calculation, the estimated that the survey might is a maximum of 15 minutes and there will be less chance for non-response.

The questionnaire was well structured so as to make the respondent more willing to continue with the survey. The questionnaire for the local residents consisted of a likert scale. For example, questions which were set to determine if respondents are aware about the impacts of tourism were assessed on a 5-point likert scale ranging from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (5).

3.5 Pilot test

Generally, pilot survey is a small-scale 'trial runs' of a larger survey. After the completion of the questionnaire, it was first handed to some inhabitants of Bel Ombre. This was done during the third week-end of October and a ten people were chosen as sample to check the validity of the questionnaire. The pilot test was done to get a clear view of the answers that would be obtained, to rectify and identify the possible problems related to the questionnaire and this also helped the author to correct errors and make the questionnaire more understandable as some questions set from the first questionnaire was fuzzy or to vast. The pilot test was a way to test some aspects within the questionnaires like the familiarity with the inhabitants of Bel Ombre. Thus some amendments had been made to better present the questionnaire.

3.6 Ethics

Social workers who help the author were contacted through telephone and e-mail, while a few were contacted personally in order to much more details about tourism development in Bel Ombre. Even though the questionnaire was filled by a face to face interview, each questionnaire consisted of a cover letter stating the purpose of the survey which was being an academic research only and that all responses given in the questionnaire would be treated with anonymity and confidentiality.

3.7 Data Collection

The collection of data was made from 18 to 21 October in the village of Bel Ombre. To target more people the data collection was made in days where there was the local market and the mass celebration. People who were also interviewed were fishermen, shopkeepers and owners of small businesses. Respondents should not be influenced when they are answering questions. Findings from data collected were used for analysis.

3.8 Data Analysis

When the survey was over, collection of data was analysed by making use of Spss 16.0. The data analysis was done by using descriptive statistics like mean, percentage and standard deviation. The results were demonstrated with the use of tables and graphical representation.

3.9 Limitations of the study

Every research project obviously encounters some drawbacks. The first constraint was time frame. As students, we have lecture days, social life to look after and many other assignments to complete. Thus I had to sacrifice our leisure time, lunch time, at times to be absent in some classes just to go on the spot to fill the questionnaire or I had meetings with the social workers and even owners.

I had made a lot of costs, especially transport costs. I had to pay for petrol. Stationery especially paper and ink was quite expensive, due to colored graphical structured and presentation. And not least, phone calls; calling to offices and keeping in touch were quite costly.