The Rural Development And Agritourisms

Published Date: 23 Mar 2015 Last Modified: 13 Apr 2017

As per the evidence in the chapter 2, it is clear that tourism is an important sector and it has the ability to contribute for national development of many countries in developed and also in developing world. In this chapter, relationship between agritourism; a form of rural tourism and rural development is going to be studied to understand the level of contribution of agritourism for the rural development using existing literature especially in developing countries. Therefore, this chapter establishes the vital theoretical background for this research.

This chapter is consisted of three main sections. In the first section, information related to rural development including definitions, different sectors of rural development, a new paradigm of rural tourism and barriers of rural development in developing countries. The second section provides information related to agritourism such as the concept, definitions, theoretical basis of agritourism, activities of agritourism, factors affecting for successful agritourism, advantages and disadvantages of agritourism, impact of agritourism for local residents, important policies related to agritourism development and current situation and development of agritourism in the world and in Asia. In the last section, relationship between agritourism and rural development has been discussed in detail.

3.1 Concept of rural development

Before understand what rural development is, it is important to look at what rural areas are. In general, rural areas are geographical areas that are located outside the towns or cities. Hamlets, villages, towns, and other small settlements are in or surrounded by rural areas. Rural areas are open swath of lands that has few homes or other buildings, and not very many people. In rural areas, population density is lower than urban areas.

Still 70 percent of the world's poor is living in rural areas (World Bank, 2010) and agriculture is the main source of income and employment. Agriculture and forestry represent activities which occupy many fields of land and play a primary role in the managing of the rich natural resources and in the formation of the landscape in the rural regions, where they constitute an essential part of the natural environment and cultural heritage. Wildlife is more frequently found in rural areas.

Rural development generally refers to the process of improving the quality of life and economic wellbeing of people living in relatively isolated and sparsely populated rural areas. It aims at the improvement of welfare of rural populations through the sustained growth of the rural economy. As a concept, it connotes overall development of rural areas with a view to improve the quality of life rural people. As a phenomenon, it is the result of various physical, technological, economic, socio-cultural and institutional factors. As a discipline, it is multi-disciplinary in nature representing an intersection of agricultural, social, behavioral and management of sciences (Fotiadis, 2009.).

Rural development is not simply an economic proposition; it has social, psychological and cultural dimensions as well. It is a multi-dimensional as well as multi-directional concept. Thus, rural development is a program designed to improve the socio-economic living conditions of the rural poor. It aims at raising their cultural level and reorienting their rich traditions. It seeks to achieve increase rural production and productivity, greater socio-economic equity and a higher standard of living for the rural poor. It is partly ameliorative and partly development-oriented (..). Development is interlinked with motivation, innovation and the active participation of the beneficiaries. Rural development recognizes the importance of improved food supplies and nutrition, as well as the importance of basic services such as health, housing, education and expanded communications, which will go a long way in enhancing the productivity of the rural poor. Moreover, it aims at providing gainful employment, so that the rural people too may contribute their mite to the national product. Rural development implies a fuller development of existing resources, including the construction of infrastructure, such as roads and irrigation works, the introduction of new production technology, the revival of traditional arts and crafts, and the creation of new types of institutions and organizations (Desai, 2005).

Not like traditional rural development approach that was based on modernization theory, the contemporary rural development is a new rural development approach, representing a policy model that seeks to focus less on the production of primary commodities and more on innovation and diversification (Ploeg et al., 2000). The model claims to encourage more democratic and effective rural development on the basis that different local stakeholders are involved as decision makers in the development process, and that the emergent development outcome is more innovative and integrated as a result. (Macken-Walsh, 2009).

3.1.1 Definitions of Rural Development

There is no universally accepted definition of rural development. The term is used in different ways in vastly divergent contexts.

Rural development can be defined as the development of regions excluding the urban areas such as the towns and cities. Smaller settlements such as villages, farmsteads, and market towns are normally included within the concept of rural, while most of the land area is expected to be used as agricultural land, forest or in its natural state (Apostolides. 2001?).

According to Robert Chambers, rural development is a strategy to enable a specific group of people, poor rural women and men, to gain for themselves, and their children more of what they want and need. It involves helping the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural areas to demand and control more of the benefits of rural development. The group includes small-scale farmers, tenants and the landless.

Rural development may be defined as overall development of rural areas to improve the quality of life of rural people. It is an integrated process, which includes social, economical, political and spiritual development of the poorer sections of the society. Social or economic activities or initiatives designed to improve the standard of living in areas far away from large towns or cities.

Thus, the term rural development may be used to imply any one of the above-mentioned connotations. The avoid ineffective floundering among the myriad definitions, it can be defined as a process leading to sustainable improvement in the quality of life of rural people, especially the poor

3.1.2 Barriers for rural development

In many countries several problems can be identified against the rural development. They act as barriers to reach rural development. Most of them are common to number of countries. Some main barriers prevailing in developing countries can be summarized as follows.

Depleting natural resources, resulting in insecurity of food and employment, compelling over majority of the rural population to live in poverty.

Pollution of the environment and climate change, causing shortage of clean drinking water and adverse impact on agricultural production.

Lack of employment opportunities, forcing the landless and small farmers to migrate to urban areas reducing young labour for the activities of rural areas.

Poor access to education, resulting in low literacy and unemployment of the youth. Particularly among women having adverse effect on their skills development, employment productivity, family welfare and education of their children.

Poor health status due to lack of clean drinking water, hygiene, sanitation and drainage facilities;

Inadequate health care facilities, leading to high child mortality and morbidity; loss of labour productivity, economic loss, indebtedness and poor quality of life.

Poor infrastructure for receiving timely information on development opportunities, market demand and prices for agricultural commodities, new technologies, forward and backward linkages, credit facilities and development policies of the government and

Lack of technological skills to conduct processing and value addition to agricultural and other local products available in rural areas.

Lack of people's organizations and participation for supporting various socio-economic development activities and governing themselves (Hegde, 2010; Walsh, 2009; Commission on Sustainable Development, 2007).

If we can overcome these problems, significant level of rural development can be obtained. It is the responsibility of the government to create a suitable environment for rural people to engage in

rural development activities to gain sustainable development.

3.1. 3 New rural development paradigm

As explained earlier, the traditional rural development approaches mainly based on industrial sector and modernization path. Decline in number of farms and a sharp drop in employment opportunities were seen as inevitable outcomes of this model. In addition, regional disparities increased and tensions grew between farming on the one hand and landscape, nature, environment and product on the other (Knickel 1990; Meyer 1996; Roep 2000). Until the early 1990s, due to scale-enlargement, intensification, specialization, within other sectors, a strong trend towards internalization was the parameters that circumscribed developments in the agricultural sector. With the understanding of these issues, present rural development means a new developmental model for the agricultural sector. This model entails society's expectations of agriculture and with the interests, prospect and perspectives of increasing segments of the agrarian community. In brief, new rural development can be seen as the search for a new agricultural development model which is targeting to use rural resources in an effective manner to distribute benefits for the majority of the community. It is impossible and undesirable to refer to rural development as a new 'blueprint,' but understanding of what elements should comprise in this new model are emerging fast. (Mannion 1996; Saraceno 1996) Agritourism, an alternative for diversification of agriculture is one of the main elements of it.

3.2 Concept of Agritourism

Agritourism can be explained as a farm enterprise operated for the enjoyment and education of the public that may also generate additional income for the farmer by promoting farm products and experiences and giving many opportunities to local community to enhance their living standards (Wilson, Thilmany, & Sullins, 2006). The concept is gaining popularity and it's providing a great escape for people in urban environment from their high-paced, strenuous and many times monotonous lifestyle. At the same time it's helping the new generation to get first-hand experience of the rural life, which otherwise is limited only to the books for them. Spending time on the farms, interacting with the local people and farmers to get an insight into their day-to-day work and their traditions, participating in the local fairs and festivals, doing the actual work on the farm, milking the cow, riding a bullock cart, are some of the activities that can be enjoyed on an agritourism outing.

3.2.1 Theoretical basis of agritourism

Agritourism is multifunctional and cooperative strategy (Sidali, Spiller and Schulze, 2011; Wilson, 2007; Essex, et. al., 2005; Schmitt, 2010; Mason, 2000). The post-productivits agricultural system is the new approach in agricultural development. It is very complicated than subsistence and productivits agriculture systems (Topcu, 2007). Post-productivits agriculture system is a broad concept and the five main tasks of it are qualitative priorities in food production, alternative income sources for farmers and sustainability of agricultural lands, conservation of environment and new employment opportunities. Agritourism can easily link with these new aspects of agricultural development. Moreover, agritourism can be performed in five important sectors such as agricultural economic, socio-cultural, environmental and educational context in an effective manner. Further, since it is highly involved with the gender factor, agritourism as a gender approach is also having higher importance (Topcu, 2007; Sidali, Spiller and Schulze; 2011; Wilson, 2007; Essex, et. al., 2005).

3.2.2 Definitions of agritourism

Before 1990, only a little information has been published on agritourism. This lack of information was one of the reasons for the absence for the commonly accepted definition (Lack, 1997). However, after 1990, the research literature on agritourism has flourished and several number of definitions are available now (McGehee & Kim, 2004). Some selected definitions of agritourism are as follows.

Agritourism can be defined as the practice of engaging in activities, events and services that has been provided to consumers for recreational, entertainment, or educational purposes at a farm, ranch, or other agricultural, horticultural, or agribusiness operation in order to allow consumers to experience, learn about, and participate in various facets of agricultural industry, culinary pursuits, natural resources, and heritage (Colorado Agritourism Research Project, 2010).

Tew (2010) cited The Agribusiness Development Division of the Missouri Department of Agriculture (2010) defines agritourism as, "visiting a working farm or any agricultural, horticultural, or agribusiness operation for the purpose of appreciation, enjoyment, education, or recreational involvement with agricultural, natural or heritage resources"

Agritourism as an innovative agricultural activity related to tourism and agriculture both in which has capacity to create additional source of income and employment opportunities to the farmers and local communities (Maruti, 2009).

Agritourism can be characterized as a business or activity that invites visitors to come on-farm or into a rural community to enjoy agriculture, its produce and the natural environment in which it exists. Agritourism is generally an additional enterprise added to the farm, integrating tourism into agri-business (Porcaro, 2009).

An activity, enterprise or business which combines primary elements and characteristics of agriculture and tourism and provides an experience for visitors which stimulates economic activity and impacts both farm and community income (Bruch, 2008).

Tourism on a working farm in which visitors can experience a direct connection with the

host farm, rural life and/or the local environment".

There is not a consistent definition of agritourism in the literature, and it has been used interchangeably with other terms. For example, some studies have previously been synonymously linked to rural tourism, farm tourism, agro-tourism, agricultural tourism and farm based vacation (Seong-woo and Sou-yeon, 2006; Ilbery, 1998; Ilbery, 1991). However, the main idea of all of these definitions is more or less similar. As a whole, agritourism can be explained as an interaction among agricultural producers, visitors, and local residents. Operators (mainly farmers) can earn extra income from the farm, visitors can get real knowledge and experience on farming and local residents can enhance their living slandered in several ways.

3.2.3 Working definition for agritourism in the study

For the purpose of this study, agritourism is defined as "tourism activities that conduct in working farm and surrounding, for enjoyment, education, recreation of visitors, hoping an additional income for the operator from farm resources in special and sustainable local development in general". This is the working definition for agritourism in this study that is suitable in Sri Lankan context. After having strong theoretical knowledge and practical experience in agritourism sector, this was developed, including considering the main purposes of agritourism visitors, motivation of agritourism operators and expectations of local residents for rural development. Economic, social, environmental dimensions have been included in this definition.

3.2.4 Activities involved in agritourism

Normally, agritourism activities are the tourism activities take place in agricultural lands and surrounding rural environments. The number of agritourism activities mainly depends on the size of the farm and nature of the farming activities. These activities are important for the visitors to enjoy and learn agriculture. Blacka et al (2001) has divided agritourism activities in Virginia, into six categories as lodging and camping (bed & breakfast, camp sites, youth camp, farm vacation, weddings, honeymoons), special events and festivals (music festivals, haunted house, holiday celebrations, harvest festivals) Off the farm (farmers' markets, roadside produce stands), recreational activities and events (fee fishing, hiking, rock climbing, horseback riding, skeet shooting), tourism related direct marketing (pick your own fruits/vegetables, sell processed food on the farm, sell herbal organic products) an youth and or adult education (Organized tours, agricultural educational programs, demonstrations). Lack (1995) divided agritourism British Colombia, into three groups as retail sales/ direct marketing (goods produced on-site, customer harvested produce and goods produced off-site), Tours (tour of processing facilities, scenic tours and tours of production facilities) and activities (accommodation, cultural activities, recreation and educational or hands on experiences). It is important to include all the possible agritourism activities because it helps to increase the length of stay and satisfaction of the visitors. In European countries, in a farm there are activities for visitors even for several days. However, the number of agritourism activities is lower in Asian countries. Further, activities in agritourism and rural tourism haven't clearly categorized yet and most of the time they are used interchangeably.

Briefly, a successful agritourism operation should have three aspects. They are the need to have things for visitors to see (educational tours, historical recreations, festivals/special events, crop arts), things for visitors to do (educational activities, petting zoos, hay rides, pick your own) and things for visitors to buy (food & drinks, farm products, souvenirs). Things to see and do are often offered free of charge. But, money can be earned by selling things to the visitors (Adam, 2001). Agritourism can be used as primary, supplementary or complementary enterprise. As a primary enterprise, agritourism would be the main activity in the farm. Agritourism could be a minor activity in supplementary enterprises and it would share equal footing in complementary enterprises (Blacka et al., 2001). Agritourism can consist of different alternatives such as temporary attraction or special event, part of a large agriculture-oriented destination, part of a large non-agriculture-oriented destination, and complete agritourism agritourism operation.

Different forms agritourism business

Farmers can incorporate agritourism activities to their farms in various ways according to the situation. Four possible ways are; as a supplementary, complementary or primary enterprise, farmer must be ready to think creatively and plan effectively in order to success the agritourism enterprise (Mnguni, 2010).

Supplementary enterprise

In a supplementary enterprise, agritourism could be a minor activity that would support the other products on the farm. For example, if the primary enterprise is crop production, educational and training programs can be introduced with marketing facility of value added crop products.

Complementary enterprise

In a complementary enterprise, agritourism activities have equal share with other enterprises in the farm product mix. For instance, if there is a grapes production enterprise on the farm, it the farmer wants to sell half of the grapes to a whole seller and the remainder to ''pick-your-own'' operations for visitors on the farm, then the two enterprises would be complementary enterprises.

The primary enterprise

In the primary enterprise, agritourism would be the major activity on the farm. For example, suppose that a farmer wants to open a winery on the farm and invite guests to spend the day or the weekend tasting wine. As a part of the wine tasting package, farmer may include overnight lodging in a cottage on your farm. You may produce grapes for the wine on your farm to supplement your wine tasting activities. Here agritourism is the main part of the farm product mix and it becomes the primary enterprise (Bernardo, Valentin and Leatherman, 2007; Blacka, et al, 2001).

3.2.5 Issues and challenges of agritourism development

As agritourism is a business activity, lots of requirements are essential for the successfulness of it. However, as agritourism is conduct mainly in rural areas by farmers, presence of several issues and challenges is a common phenomenon. For example, a study by Lack (1995) in British Colombia, has discovered that, lack of training, marketing knowledge, quality control, finance, appropriate insurance, excessive regulations, personal challenges for farm families, conflict with primary agricultural production, distance from markets, infrastructure limitations and farm disease are the challenges of agritourism development in that country. Agritourism in Nova Scotia has some obstacles. Many agritourism operators face the problem of lack of assistance and the knowledge required to produce market-ready products as Nova Scotia Tourism and Culture is reluctant to include and to enhance agritourism in their marketing campaigns. This lack of support hinders the development of agritourism products and services resulting poorly developed and marketed products by farmers. So, farmers could not develop many skills required to operate an effective tourism business (Colton and Bissix, 2005).

A study in Haryana, India has reported that the Lack of funds for publicity and advertisement less number of visitors, Lack of technology to develop farm tourism, lack of motivation of farmers, inadequate price for farm products/activities as major constraints in establishing agritourism (Shehrawat, 2009).

In Sri Lanka, issues and challenges in agritourism are small size farm lands, lack of required skills for the operators, poor level of processing of agricultural products, low level of publicity and promotion are the significant factors. Furthermore, lack of visitors, environmental pollution, poor condition on infrastructure, are the common problems for all the operators (Malkanthi and Routray, 2011b). Although there are few differences, most of the issues and challenges are common for many countries. As issues and challenges are negatively affect for the growth of the sector, finding solutions is utmost important.

3.2.6 Sustainability in agritourism operations

Sustainable tourism development is supposed to meet the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing the opportunities for the future. It is envisaged as leading to management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled, while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems (World Tourism Organization, 1999) Therefore, Sustainability principles refer to the environmental, economic, and socio-cultural aspects of tourism development, and a suitable balance between these three dimensions to guarantee its long-term sustainability.

Same as other tourism destinations, sustainability of agritourism destinations are very important in long run. Although most of the destinations that are feasible in short run, face difficulties in survival in long run. So, economic feasibility, social acceptability and environmental friendliness of tourism operations are equally applicable to agritourism as well. World Tourism Organization (2001), defines sustainable development as "convene the requirement of present tourists and host regions as caring and improving opportunity for prospect. Its management of resources satisfies in way of economical, social and aesthetic needs satisfying while maintaining cultural integrity necessary for ecological processes, biological diversity and existence support system". Markandya, et.al., (2003) have reported that the three main linkages among tourism and sustainable development are economic, social and environmental.

Tourism can kill itself if we mismanage the tourism activities and places (Yalcin Kuwan & Perran Akan, 2001). Unspoiled natural environment is an asset of the industry. It will create the competitive advantage to the industry (Cater, 1993). The implementation and success of policies of sustainability, in employing tourism income to support social and cultural development and wild life conservation, require strategy framework which guides tourism development in a balanced and coherent way (Hall, 1998).

Economic feasibility

As one element of destination's economy, tourism must support a viable economic base. A healthy economy enables a country, region or city to pursue initiatives designed to enhance the quality of its residents (Ritchie & Crouch, 2003). Traditional way of management of tourism destination was rather productive and resource-centered. But since there are limits in adapting to the market, the present strategy is combined supply and market let approach. In this context, management of demand is highly responsible for the sustainable tourism development (Kastenholz, 2004). So, instead of profit maximization of a destination by damaging the environment in short term, now the principle is to obtain the optimum profit.

Economic benefits are positively related with the number of visitors. Further arrangement of traditional and cultural events is cost effective with this large number. However, as agritourism is a niche market, socio-culturally and environmentally sustainable, cooperation of cultural activities is very important.

Socio-cultural feasibility

It is widely accepted that local community participation is essential in sustainable tourism. Since agritourism is a service industry, goodwill and cooperation of host communities are the key factors of the success of the industry (Cole, 2006; Knowd, 2006). It is more important for the positive effects of tourism to the local community. It should be free from negative effects to the community. So, it is essential to test the social acceptability of tourism destinations (Gonzalez and Falcon, 2003). Convery, Dutson & Scott (2006) found out the importance of stronger link between tourism and surrounding communities. The study also emphasizes the importance of social capital and social network in remote upland rural locations for the success of the operation. Most common measurement in tourism socio cultural force is the relation of visitors to the local population. Vital indicators are the stay-over time and average length of stay (Mcelroy, 2003). Sharpley (2002) said that socio-cultural growth includes population of remote areas, development and maintenance of public services, renewal of local craft, customs and cultural recognition. So it influences the chance for social control and exchange.

Environmental feasibility

Tourism destination should less damage to the surrounding environment; especially it should be free from serious environmental pollution activities. So, it should match with environmental rules and regulations and followed by Environment Impact Assessment (United Nations, 1999). However, the literature reveals that little evidence is there regarding environment being considered by farmers, planners and tourism professionals (Kline et al. 2007).

Thus, sustainable agritourism should ensure viable, long-term economic operations, providing socio-economic benefits to all stakeholders that are fairly distributed, including stable employment and income-earning opportunities and social services to host communities, and contributing to poverty alleviation. Also, respect the socio-cultural authenticity of host communities, conserve their built and living cultural heritage and traditional values, and contribute to inter-cultural understanding and tolerance. It should make careful use of environmental resources that constitute a key element in tourism development, maintaining essential ecological processes and helping to conserve natural heritage and biodiversity.

Sustainable agritourism development requires the informed participation of all relevant stakeholders, as well as strong political leadership to ensure wide participation and consensus building. Achieving sustainable agritourism is a continuous process and it requires constant monitoring of impacts, introducing the necessary preventive and/or corrective measures whenever necessary. Furthermore, it should also maintain a high level of tourist satisfaction and ensure a meaningful experience to the tourists, raising their awareness about sustainability issues and promoting sustainable tourism practices amongst them.

Although it is difficult and expensive, agritourism development should follow the sustainable tourism procedures to obtain the real benefits of it forever. However, most of the operators in many countries mainly emphasize only on short term economic advantages without social and environmental benefits. This is the reason for the breakdown of many tourism operations including agritourism, within a short time period.

3.2.7 Government policies in agritourism

In general local government is the most important authority in establishing tourism development policies (Perce, 1989). However, the types and the content of its involvement vary from country to country based on the political, economic, and constitutional systems. In many European countries governments' have supported the growth of the agritourism sector.

There are national policies for the support and development of agritourism in a number of countries for a long time. For instance, in France, state financial aids to support the renovation of redundant farm buildings into accommodation facilities were introduced in 1954. Farms in Italy, Germany and Denmark also have long benefited from national support for the development of tourist facilities (Frater, 1983; Nilsson, 2002). In Britain, Scheme offering financial incentives and advices about diversification, together with partial relaxation of planning restrictions, have facilitated the development of farm-based tourism. The farm diversification Grant Scheme introduced by the ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food in 1988, was one of the first measures offering grants to farmers to help them develop diversification schemes (Walford, 2001).

According to Douglas & Douglas, (2001); Fernando, Rebollo & Biadal, (2003), it is important to develop policies in a proactive nature to lay the foundation and capture the development potential of tourism for rural communities. So, the national rural tourism strategy of a country must emphasis on infrastructure development, product development, accreditation and industrial standards, education and training, market analysis and the role of government authorities and industrial leaders in further developing the rural tourism product. Ritchie & Crouch (2003) reported that policy is an important factor which ensures the success of tourism destination. It also creates a friendly environment among stakeholders.

Therefore, the main objectives of agritourism policy are to minimize and alleviate negative environmental, social and cultural impacts; optimize revenue for industry and re-invest in conservation; optimize the active involvement of, and equitable distribution of economic benefits to, local communities; educate visitors and citizens about the importance of conserving natural and cultural heritage; promote ethical behavior and responsibilities towards the natural and cultural environment; manage operations such that there are long term benefits to the resource, industry and the local community; deliver high quality, value-for-money, enlightens and participatory natural resources and culture-based experience for visitors; encourage travel in a spirit of humanity, respect and learning about local hosts, their culture and the natural environment etc. Victorious farm-based tourism, mostly depends on policy makers, government officers at the local or countrywide level (Beus & Dunlap, 1993).

Brohma (1996) has clearly explained the importance of government involvement in rural development in his study on new directions in tourism for third world development as;

"the third world tourism has grown rapidly, but has also encountered many problems common to other outward-oriented development strategies, including; excessive foreign dependency, the creation of separate enclaves, the reinforcement of socioeconomic and spatial inequalities, environmental destruction and raising cultural alienation. To avoid such problems, institutional mechanisms need to be created to encourage active state and community participation in tourism planning''.

Ritchie and Crouch (2003) reported that the following aspects are important as government policies of the sector. Infrastructure policy (Can make destination safer and attractive for the visitors), Local zoning policy/by-laws (Can restrict or encourage tourism facility development), Land use and land assignation, Water resource management, Heritage conservation, Credit facility (granting reduced-interest loans to business and enterprises Affects costs and therefore profitability), Tax and subsidies (Tax concessions for investments, Can affect the growth of the industry negatively and positively and finally for the profitability of the destination), Minimum wage policy (Can affect labor markets), Agricultural policy (Organic farming, Soil conservation), Welfare policy (Can influence the nature and behavior of the work force), Education, extension and Training policy (Can affect the quality of the workforce), Marketing policy, Environmental policy (Limits growth and access to attractive but sensitive areas). A study by Ryan, (2006) discovered that, the importance of statewide infrastructure development, provide agritourism training and education for all present and potential stakeholders to improve the industry.

Political motivation at central level, enacting relevant legal actions, empowering local communities and cooperation of prevailing elite groups are important for the initiation and operationalization of the participatory tourism development approach as a pro-active tourism development tactic in developing countries. Tosun (2005) and Liu (2006) have discussed the policy initiatives that encourage the development of rural tourism in Malaysia. Indigenous accesses to and control of tourism as a key policy objective and in 1980's the promotion of greater representation of native Malays in tourism industry and greater local participation in tourism stressed in the Malaysia plan 1996-2000 are crucial. To cater to the large rural-based Malay population, rural tourism is regarded by the state government as a mechanism. Agri or nature themed tourism is vigorously pursued by tourism planners and is used as a facilitator to help revitalize the rural economy.

3.2.8 Agritourism development in the world

Although agritourism has a long history, a new and more organized form seems to have stated during late 1980's and early 1990's in Europe (Nilsson, 2002). In Italy agritourism began in late 1990s. As Denmark farmers started to provide accommodation facilities for guest on their farms in early 70's, by 1977, 10000 bed-nights had been spent on working farms, mainly in Funnel Island or North Jutland (Frater, 1983). Farm stay in New Zeeland is one of the most significant and widely spread events. In 1998 it was estimated that more than 1000 New Zeeland farms had engaged with agritourism. (Pearce, 1990).

Much propaganda has been spread throughout Europe to promote and boost social and economic challenges due to the downward trend of traditional agrarian industries whereas in many other countries, tourism is a mechanism bringing up an output of economic growth as well as development under varying degrees of state patronage (Hall, 2004). In the United Kingdom Agritourism commenced around 1988 establishing a farm diversification grant scheme after a decline in the socio-economy which was due to restructuring agricultural economics to post productivity. The last twenty years has shown a remarkable up rise in the supply of farm based tourism. Further, researches on a number of issues related to farm diversification are tributaries to diversification, characteristics of farm tourism, farm tourism markets, public sector agencies and farm diversification etc (Sharpley and Vass, 2006).

Agritourism has created an image in the minds of people giving many families an opportunity to try their hands in agricultural operations. It is a diversification in the economic activity that takes place when travel is linked by people with agricultural products, services or experience. This on-farm diversification makes it known to the non-farming public about farm products and creates awareness in their minds along with an education. According to the present trend, people are moving away from crowded resorts and polluted cities and are now focusing themselves on family farms as tourist destinations for a number of reasons such as desire for peace & harmony, enjoying the benefit of a natural environment and getting away from the humdrum of city life to relish the exuberance of rural recreation and move along farms, picking and choosing whatever they like which is a cheap breakaway (curiosity about the farming industry and life style (Wicks 2000; Manitoba Agriculture, Food & Rural Initiatives, 2001).

Also, many trends across society point to a growing demand for agritourism operations. Strong demand for wholesome family oriented recreational activities, growing concern for health promoting food products, increased demand for highest quality produce from amateur chefs, continuous pressure on prices for traditional crops, making small farms, expanding ethnic markets, creating willingness to pay for quality food items, people taking more but shorter trips are the most significant factors (Wicks, 2001). Offering overnight accommodation, farm visits and nature walks to the public are many activities which supply the income of the farm. The need of agricultural tourism is to eat farm fresh produce as well as cooked fresh farm food which could be consumed in a family environment. Agritourism projects could be broken down to draw out the choice of public, by a simple sale of farm fresh produce on a roadside stand, by membership clubs, U-pick operation, farmer markets etc. Roadside stands give farmers a wide choice of selling fresh produce, canned dried pickled or even processed food and floral products from the farmer directly to visitors at a Kiosk near the farm or alongside the farm (Cross, 2004).

Recently, importance of agritourism has increased both as tourism and a source of revenue for the farming community. England, France, Germany and Austria, currently dominate the global agritourism industry with 20,000-30,000 enterprises in each (Busby & Rendle, 2000). Agritourism in Alberta in Canada is a developing industry. It is responding to a growing demand for access to farm and ranch lifestyle and products from what is largely an urban audience. Farms and ranches that offer agritourism experiences to the traveling public have existed in Canada for over 20 years. Several Canadian provinces have recognized the potential for agritourism and have prepared strategy-related documents about the industry (Canada Alberta Farm Business Management Initiatives, 2001).

In Italy rural tourism and agritourism are highly successful and have a high level of demand. For example, in 2002 million tourist arrivals were recorded in Italian agritourism sector (Pulina, Dettori, & Paba, 2006; Bouquet & Winter, 1987; Bryan, 1991; Dernoi, 1991; Momsen, 1986) Spain is also associated with the array of actions that are largely characterized by family based agriculture. Jolly (1999) revealed that the changing demographics and lifestyles of California and US populations offer opportunities which are closely linked to agriculture to their visitors. Exploiting these opportunities requires a set of skills that are somewhat different from those typical of more conventional agriculture. Agritourism is direct marketing and educational program can assist in promoting the transition to this new agriculture, and the University of California, through its Small Farm Program and Co-operative Extension, is contributing to the development of agritourism and the new agriculture.

HB 654 was a program introduced in 2002, by the Department of Agriculture and Tourism development cabinet in Kentucky, with the farmer's direct involvement on agritourism. This legislation took place during the 2002 session. Insurance and infrastructure needs, tourism based economic opportunities, market agritourism nationally and internationally education and support to farmers and agri-business relate agritourism opportunities, capital and business assistance for farmers and agri-business are the main goals of it (West Kentucky Cooperation, 2004). Department of Agriculture, Kentucky (2001) initiated an Agritourism Working Group to discuss ways to improve and promote the viability of a state agritourism sector.

Hsu (2005) reported that, in the United Sates, nature and agricultural based tourism, the fastest growing segment, has received an average of 30 percent annual increase during 1997-2007 period. Today, in many parts of the United States, due to aggressive state sponsored development and marketing programs, agritourism has become a growing industry. In 2002, Atlantic consultant has done a research on "Agritourism within the context of rural tourism''. The main three study elements of the study are; establishment of existing & future market demand for rural including Agritourism, supply in the Agritourism sector and identification of a six year plan for the development and promotion of rural tourism. According to a study on "The bed and breakfast market of Buffalo City in South Africa: Present status, constraints and success factors'', the B&B has an average of 3.6 years of experience, part-time and full-time employees. They are providing a combination of services, facilities, activities and have used a variety of promotional techniques with word of mouth being the most prevalent. They have experienced problems such as crime, lack of sector focus, lack of entrepreneurial creativity, network enterprises, and access to a dedicated fund for business finance, reduced operating expenses, non-financial support and continuous skill development.

Other than Canada and USA, a lot of countries such as Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom, Germany, France and Netherlands are also applying agritourism in a very advanced level. There are well established agritourism centers in those countries and rural farmers are earning a significant income due to very high demand for the services (Beerali & Martin, 2004).

Agritourism Program in Cyprus

The need for agritourism in Cyprus was initiated in 1996 with the establishment of Cyprus Tourism Organization by Agritourism Company for the better co-ordination of agritourism properties. Today, there are about 58 lodgings in Cyprus agritourism. The basis of the program was the revitalization of the countryside and reversal of urban trend. This was to be achieved by creating a tourism infrastructure of high caliber and encouraging new entrepreneurial activities in rural area of Cyprus; also providing the inhabitants of the countryside a chance to get involved with the program, by protecting and enhancing built heritage, culture and tradition (Jolly, 1999). In short, agritourism in Cyprus embraces the typical socio-economic aims of rural tourism development. It doesn't act as an alternative to traditional rural occupations or lifestyles, but rather as a supplementary income enabling everyday practice to continue. At the same time, however, it encompasses the broader objective of repositioning the island's tourism product (Sharpley, 2002).

Asian Experiences

Several Asian countries namely; Indonesia, Malaysia, Taiwan, Thailand, Japan, Korea and India have stated agritourism as an alternative income source for the rural farms since a significant number of years before. In Taiwan, year 1979 is generally considered as the starting point of agritourism and in year 1980, the Taipei city farmer association established tourism in a tea plantation. Also, in mid 1980s', establishment of agritourism development and demonstration plan had taken place (Hsu, 2005).

The plantation areas in Sumatra and Java in Indonesia have been developed mainly for rural tourism. In Korea, a group of more than five farm households with home stay villages near tourist resorts have been developed as tourist-farms. In Malaysia, the government pumps out most of the funds for more than thirty agritourism centers (Sharpley & Vass, 2006). Malaysian Minister of Agriculture has emphasized the importance of revolutionizing the agriculture sector, in the conference of Malaysia Agriculture, Horticulture and Crops, stating, ''we will also try to transform many of our agricultural and research stations in to tourists destinations'' (Hamid, 2000).

Hsu (2005) has reported that, in Taiwan, agritourism was proposed by the Department of Agricultural Extension of the National Taiwan University and the Council of Agriculture in 1989. In 1993, the council of Agriculture advocated the ''Leisure Farm guiding Development and Management Program'' to assist the farmers those who were interested in diversifying their management strategies. In 1996, the ''Leisure Farm Guiding Regulations'' was formulated by the government. Other than the previous objectives, encouragement of farm owners to integrate local cultural activities into their management strategies to boot the local economy was also emphasized.

In India ''Agro Rural Tourism'' (ART) is a program to find solution to overcome farming problem. So, the Agro Rural Tourism can be a best supplementary business for Agriculture. ART is going to be organized not only on a developed plot like a resort, but also on the vast ambiance of activity farming set up, if this farming is properly integrated and sustainable, naturally. Importance will be given to the ecological implications of the area. Thus ART will automatically support the global concept of "Environmental Security".

Also, Haryana Tourism, (2007) reported that, Haryana Tourism in India is the first state in the country established agritourism collaboration with 13 farms near Delhi which seeks to open a vista of new opportunities such as musical sound of nature, pure air, planting baby seeds, riding bullock carts, organic food, cultural heritage, folk traditions, joys of nature etc. The farms are located in Faridabad, Gurgon, Rohtak and Karnal districts of Haryana. Other than theses places, there are agritourism destinations in areas such as Mahrashtra, Kerala, Panjab etc.

Agriculture and agritourism in Thailand is going ahead, compared to other countries in the region. At present, 80 Agricultural experiment stations are in the country providing support for the agriculture sector in numerous ways. Out of 80 the experiment stations, 17 stations have been developed by the Department of Agriculture as agritourism operations considering the suitable features of each destination like educational value, their location, importance as a prime tourism spot, their available rooming facility etc. It is reported that there is a high demand for those destinations by local as well as foreign visitors. Guide book to agritourism introduced by the secretary of the Tourism Office, Department of Agriculture, provides all the useful information for all 17 centers including the vital tourist calendar (Department of Agriculture Thailand, 2004). Other than Public agritourism centers, there are many private destinations which provide the service to visitors in various scales. Farm Chokchai in Nawankoon, Choto Re Leai in Loei, VaVee Station and Doi Tuny in Chiang Ria, Ang Kang Station (Royal project) in Chiang Mai are some of the best examples.

Agritourism in Sri Lanka is in the emerging stage and there are only a few destinations available at present in the country. Although there are facilities to visit farm lands by public free of charge upon prior request, agritourism as a business is still a new concept for most of the rural areas. Also, farmers have lack of knowledge and skill to start agritourism operations on their own. Though a few farmers have the potential, they need outside support and guidance to initiate.

Although there is certain level of experiences on agritourism in few Asian countries, most of the currently available experiences are mainly from economically advanced countries having large farms. For instance, in USA and Canada, the average size of a small-scale farm is 1000 ha and in Canada 1500ha respectively, and they are much larger than large-scale farms in Asia. So, there is a doubt whether we can apply these experiences directly to Asian countries like Sri Lanka, especially to the small-scale rural farmers.

Summing up the facts, it is very evident that agritourism, as a growing sector, has a sound foundation for generating income in rural areas of many countries. Wicks & Merrett (2003) have mentioned that, agritourism development can be successfully integrated into local economies, environment and rural lifestyles without a great disruption. However, in some situations they have not been able to give the expected outcome. Furthermore, most of the experiences of agritourism which I came across during my literature survey were, from developed and well advanced countries. Compared to developing countries, those farmers have large size farms, good education & technology and a lot of other facilities and government support to run a farm business well. Also, general people have a lot of opportunities to engage in travel and tourism as visitors. But, the condition of the farms in Sri Lanka is different in many aspects. Therefore, the question we have is whether agritourism in Sri Lanka would give the same outcome as the other developed counties?

3.2.9 Agritourism and farm tourism

Farm tourism can be explained as the process of visiting a farm for a holiday, participating in its operations and learning about farming. According to Haryana Tourism Corporation Limited (2012) the concept of farm tourism envisages involvement of private sector the farmers / farm house owners based on public private partnership. The farm house owners' act as both hosts and guides to the visiting tourist. Preference is given to farm which have agricultural land attached. The farm house owner is supposed to provide home cooked food, stay facilities and show the visitor the agricultural practices such as floriculture, harvesting, bee keeping, dairying etc. and introduce to him the village way of life through various participatory activities. The visitors can enjoy the natural surroundings in fresh air. The visitor gets an exposure of local community life which means attending a panchayat meeting, exposure of local songs, food, dances, art and craft etc .The tour of village includes visiting the local artisans like the carpenter, blacksmith etc. The visitors have experience of festival occasion such as marriage and local meals. They can also participate or witness village games such as wresting, gulidanda kite flying and have ride on bullock cart, tractor etc. Experiences such as jumping on the hay and taking bath in the well could be unique feature for the people and children from urban areas. They can also see the important fairs and festivals being organized in these areas along with important monuments, have lies, historical sites etc. Each farm can aim at developing a unique selling point some are specializing in organic farming).

The terms "farm tourism" and "agritourism" are used interchangeably, as preference for use is different geographically. In England, the term farm tourism is used; on the East Coast, agritourism is used (Rilla, 2012). Use of the term farm tourism is not as common as agritourism and most of the authors have used the term agritourism and farm tourism interchangeably or as synonyms in their studies (Beglaryan, 2011; Phillip, Hunter & Blackstone, 2010; Hepburn, 2008; Bruch, 2008; Kline et al; Hepburn, 2008; Barbieri & Mshenga, 2008; Roberts & Hall, 2001; Wall, 2000). To the best of my knowledge, no one has compared and contrast agritourism and farm tourism yet.

3.3 Agritourism and Rural Development

There are several evidences for agritourism's contribution for rural development from various countries. Not only in developed countries, researches in developing countries have also discovered many finding regarding this phenomenon as agritourism has ability to open up alternative income sources for the farmers as well as surrounding community. As it is a people-oriented industry, agritourism can offer many jobs which have helped to revive rural economies. Agritourism has different ways and means of assisting rural development and has ability to influence the economic, socio-cultural and environmental enhancement of some societies.

3.3.1 Agritourism and rural development in developed countries

There are many significant studies in developed countries related to agritourism and rural development. As per the study of Haghiri and Okech (2011) on "role of the agritourism management in developing the economy of rural areas in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada", in rural development, agritourism acts as a solution for the problem of poverty by giving economic opportunities for the farmers. They have mentioned that the promotion of tourism and agritourism activities is one way to help develop the economy of rural areas in the province that is facing a series of challenges, such as small internal markets; shifting socio-demographics; lack of sufficient investments; the high rate of out-migration; diseconomies of scale; and the underdeveloped economic infrastructure for the time being. Further, they have identified three alternatives as starting the production of new products; organic fruits and vegetables, specialized livestock products like sheep, goats, fur, emu, rabbits, etc., farm-based food products, such as bread, jams and jellies, and handmade crafts and enhancing the existing tourism products and also developing new markets in Newfoundland and Labrador, other provinces of Canada, and international countries.

In Bahamas, agritourism use forward linkages with agriculture and tourism by direct selling of agricultural products and services to the visitors and also backward linkages such as indirect approach using an intermediary to provide products to the tourism sector. These activities improve the income of farmers and finally helping for the rural development (Hepburn, 2008).

Schmitt (2010) has done a study on the farming women's agency, coping strategies, visions and wishes against the dynamic changes of the agricultural sector in the Franconian Jura in northern Bavaria, Germany. While agritourism has become an important permanent livelihood strategy for some farming families, it remains an additional income for others. Either way, it has turned out to be a source of women's growing self-confidence as well as a sustainable ingredient of regional development.

Agritourism in Italy has able to conduct broad and innovative product range, sophisticated Marketing systems and most importantly, extensive government supports. The Italian system was developed with a clear objective in mind: "To halt rural out-migration by keeping farmers on the land" (ibid). (Porcaro, 2009).

As per Choo, (2012) agritourism can give farmers an opportunity to generate additional income and to be an avenue for direct marketing of the farm products to consumers. It can also help counteract social and economic problems of the farms and local residents (loss of income, increased expenses, globalization, and others (associated with the decline of traditional agriculture industries). While the financial advantages with respect to employment and wages are clear, agritourism development can also enhance the local quality of life. It can serve as an important source of tax revenues, which may lead to higher public services and lower local tax rates. agritourism can also support conservation of local culture and traditions, helping to maintain the viability of small-scale agriculture (Choo, 2012).

In Turkey it was declared that agritourism is strongly supported as one of the rural development strategies. A number of agritourism enterprises are developing at local level with volunteer initiatives using the desires of local people and local administrations that want to benefit from the facilities of agritourism in Turkey. For example in, Karaburun and Ankara Villages, agritourism services such as accommodation, tasting and buying local foods by the urban people and administration to find extra income for them (Topcu-2007). Also, the BuÄŸday Association's 'Ecological Farm Holidays' project (Ta-Tu-Ta Project) in Turkey is a cooperative project conducted by volunteer farmers and non-governmental organization targeting to encourage ecological lifestyle. This project stated that farmers benefit from agritourism by producing and selling of organic products to the visitors.

Agritourism aids rural economic development by providing alternative use of farmland, increasing revenue of on-farm activities, improving business sustainability, and bringing economic revenue to rural areas both on-site and near the operation. Agritourism also has the potential for informal agricultural education between the owner/operator and the general population which has little to no direct contact with agriculture (Jolly & Reynolds, 2005).

A study of Nasers, (2009) in Iowa UAS found that the promotion of agritourism provides a beneficial relationship for local food systems as it helps to enhance the appeal of local foods. 'Local food' has become the unifying theme of a social movement to challenge and reshape the modern agri-food system. A "local food" paradigm, in contrast, emphasizes food quality and freshness, a personal connection to small and family scale farms, environmental protection, community self-reliance, and the economic multiplier effects of making local purchases (Ostrom, 2006, p. 66). The demand for fresh produce continues to grow, offering producers the opportunity to increase their profits through direct marketing. Direct marketing provides a link between consumers seeking high-quality produce and producers who are seeking an opportunity to compete in the produce industry (Kuches et al.). In addition to linking the consumer to the producer, direct marketing allows the producer to bypass the traditional distribution network and earn a greater share of profits (Kuches et al.). As a form of direct marketing, agritourism creates opportunities for the producer to link with their consumer and directly market their products. Moreover, Agritourism is increasing rural vitality and stimulating new economic opportunities through the diversification of farm operations and increased revenue on-site and near the operations in Iowa (Norby and Retallick, 2012). Twe (2010) have reported that agritourism is increasingly being adopted in the United States as it gives a myriad of economic and intrinsic benefits to farmers, visitors and communities, keeps family farms in business and preserving American agricultural heritage, maximizing the productivity of farmland resources through their recreational use, and even improve the economic situation of local communities. Also agritourism is suggested to increase farm revenues and serve other farmer goals (Ollenburg & Buckley, 2007; McGehee & Kim, 2004; Nickerson et al., 2001). Farms that diversify into agritourism are likely to utilize existing resources or other low-input options (Fisher, 2006). Additional economic support for the farm business is especially important in the current time due to increased land values and agricultural input costs (Salamon, 2003; Busby & Rendle, 1999; Ilbery, 1991).

Agritourism generally activates as a small family enterprises, so it's both socially and economically profitable. Also Agritourism assists to mitigate emigration from remote areas and generate profit by diversifying economy. The cultural exchange of development with urban and rural areas adds quality to their life (Monica Iorio & Andrea Corsale, 2010). According to Gale, (2006) rural tourism enterprises provide novel sources of income for families living in remote areas. 2002, Sharpley (2002) has said that agritourism can offer job opportunities for rural people in local crafts and wine making sectors to provide additional income.

Agritourism helps repopulation of rural areas, improvement of the public services, revitalization of local crafts and to increase opportunities for social contacts and exchange. Developing and organizing agritourism requires a significant investment though potential investment is less. (Sharpley, 2002). Agritourism positive educational force stimulates a thirst for knowledge of the outside world, encouraging entrepreneurial activity, providing extra income, generating new forms of employment, creating new patterns of travel or setting up potentially negative demonstration effects, modifying culture and major economic leakages through transnational involvement (Hall, 1998). A study of Beglaryan, (2011) on Development of Agro tourism in Armenia, agritourism provides the opportunity to increase the potential for higher margin, on-farm sales and value added products and services. Because most Armenian farms are operated by small landowners, there is great opportunity for customization and uniqueness in agritourism attractions.

Theoretically there is a strong relationship between agritourism and rural development. It is believed that agritourism can contribute for the agriculture rural development in several ways (Wicks and Marret 2003; Bruch, 2008). However, to fulfill this condition, several other requirements and conditions are crucial. For example, Danish Food Industry Agency, has paid attention on barriers and structural shortcomings exist before they focus (back) towards the development potential for farms wanting to diversify their business, and their possibilities for economic support and, just as important, advice from the agricultural associations' consultancy structure as well as from national and regional tourism development bodies, and possibly networks for rural/farm/green tourism operators to achieve the full potential of rural tourism in Denmark can be realized. (Nielsen,Aae Nissen and Just, 2010).

With most agricultural producers in Miami-Dade County experiencing increased pressure by developers to sell their lands, rising operating costs, and stagnant or declining profit margins for most of the major agricultural commodities, agritourism is a possible way to assist with preserving agriculture and open space and contributing to the longer- term economic variability of farm operations. Moreover, while the benefits of agritourism are vital to the individual producers, the benefits go much further with multiplier effects can have major impacts on the local economy (Evans and Hodges, 2006).