The Niche Market Ecotourism

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

Module name: Developing Business Knowledge

Literature Review

Name of supervisor: Tim Gale

Student number: 12028069

Words counts: Words

Abstract(150)

Contents page

1. Introduction P.g.5-8

2. Definition of ecotourism P.g.9-11

3. The relationship between ecotourism and other forms of tourism P.g.12-13

4. New tourists P.g.14-15

4.1 Definition of new eco-tourists P.g.16

4.2 Hard to soft continuum P.g.17-18

4.3 Demographic profile of eco-tourists P.g.19

4.4 Attitude and behaviour of eco-tourists P.g.20-21

4.5 Motivations of eco-tourists P.g.22-23

5. Impacts and sustainability of ecotourism

5.1 Main arguments of ecotourism P.g. 24-25

5.2 Triple bottom line sustainability P.g.26-27

5.3 Impacts and sustainability P.g.28

5.3.1 Impacts on environment P.g.29-30

5.3.2 Impacts on environmental-economy P.g.30

5.3.3 Impacts on economy P.g.31-33

5.3.4 Impacts on social-economy P.g.34

5.3.5 Impacts on social P.g.35-36

6. Methodology P.g.37

7. Conclusions P.g.

8. References P.g.

1. Introduction

Niche tourism is an emergent form of tourism. Niche tourism comes from the concept of "Special interest tourism" in the 1980s (Read, 1980, cited by Weiler and Hall, 1992). Special interest tourism is targeted on homogeneous tourists who have similar interests such as ecotourism and photographical tourism (Stebbins, 1982). Most of the niche tourism is based on the idea of sustainability (Hill and Gale, 2009). Niche tourism is referring to tailor a specific form of tourism to satisfy the tourists who have particular interests and involves only small group of tourists to visit relatively authentic environments (Novelli, 2005). There are many different forms of niche tourism such as sport tourism, gay tourism, medical tourism, ethical tourism, adventure tourism, dark tourism and nature-based tourism.

Nowadays, the travellers are more aware of the fragile ecosystems and the wilderness environment (Bjork, 2000). Eco-tourists have a growing demand to travel to wilderness areas (Scheyvens, 1999). Natural-based tourism is based on enjoyment in the comparatively undisturbed natural landscape (Valentine, 1992). The nature-based tourism including adventure, ecotourism, 3S(sea, sand and sun), captive, extractive and health tourism are becoming more popular (Weaver, Faulkner and Lawton, 1999). Although nature-based tourism is a not big part of tourism globally, it grows at 12% annually (The International Ecotourism Society, 2006).

Ecotourism is recognised as one of the rapidly growing markets within the global tourism industry (Scheyvens, 1999; Eagles, 1997; Beeton, 1998; Wight, 2001). In 2004, ecotourism was recorded to grow globally three times quicker than the whole tourism industry itself and is expected to rapidly increase over the next twenty years (TIES, 2006). The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) (2006) forecasts that it will attract 1.56 billion travellers in the global tourism market. The ecotourism market takes up 6% of the GDP around the world and it grows 5% annually (Economy Watch, 2010). Ecotourism is becoming more popular because of the increasing awareness of the importance on conserving the natural environment among the general public (Orams, 1995; Ayala, 1996). The social media also contributes in drawing attention to promoting natural areas (Whelan, 1991).

There are over 85 definitions related to ecotourism existing, making the reader confused (Fennell, 2001; Hill and Gale, 2009). Some definitions are home-grown to fit into different purposes (Edwards et al.,2000). Therefore, there is no agreement on the definition of ecotourism (Buckley, 1994; Orams, 1995; Ross and Wall, 1999; Fennell, 2001). Sirakaya, Sasidharan and Sömez (1999) have captured 25 studies by different researchers about the concept of ecotourism. Although there are many different views, the common highlight point is also to conserve the environment and connect people with the natural environment. The main idea of ecotourism concluded by a number of researchers is a natural-based tourism which works on minimizing the negative impacts, benefiting the local community, conserving, learning and understanding the culture and wildlife. (Boo, 1991; Valentine, 1993; Western, 1993; Buckley, 1994; Ceballos-Lascurain, 1998; Diamantis, 1999; Fennell, 2001)

Moreover, a lot of different terms such as responsible tourism (Goodwin and Francis, 2003), ethical tourism (Kutay, 1989; Goodwin and Francis, 2003), environmentally-friendly travel (Borst, 1990), sustainable tourism (Clarke, 1997) and green tourism (Jones, 1987) are having the same purpose to concern on minimizing the negative tourism impact on the environment (Orams, 1995). Sirakaya, Sasidharan and Sömez (1999) have analysed 14 different themes on ecotourism, they found that environmentally friendly, responsible travel, educational travel, low-impact travel, cultural tourism, sustainable tourism, and community involvement are the most associated forms of tourism with ecotourism.

This papers structure is as follows. Firstly, it begins with discussing more details on the contrasting definition about ecotourism. Then, it continues with inspecting the motivation of individuals who participate in ecotourism. Therefore, it will look at the impact eco-tourists influence on the environment and economy as well as criticise how sustainable ecotourism is. Last but not least, it concludes with a brief inspection of the methodology approach and concluding this research by highlighting the key issues and problems.

The paper contributed to identify the key themes and debates on the definition of ecotourism and eco-tourists motivation as well as attempting to give suggestions on the future research field in ecotourism.

The study accessed the literatures from UWE e-library, and used "ecotourism", "eco-tourists" and "sustainability" as key words for searching. The useful journal articles are selected by capturing abstract and citation count. After identifying key articles, the study used the articles from the reference at the end of key papers. Besides of e-resource, the books which are relevant to the topic of "ecotourism", "sustainability" and "tourists’ behaviour" disciplines are also used as reference. This research quoted more than 120 references including 50 books, 71 literature reviews and 10 websites as reference.

2. Definition of ecotourism

The phrase "Ecotourism" was first coined by Ceballos-Lascurain in 1987 (Fennell, 2008). He defines ecotourism as travelling to comparatively unpolluted natural areas to study, appreciate and enjoy the natural environment, culture and wildlife (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1987). Boo (1990) supports Ceballos-Lascurain’s definition and he considers ecotourism is the same as nature tourism (Boo, 1990 cited by Weiler, Hall, 1992). It ignores the nature of conserving the environment. Weaver (2005a) notices that ecotourism also targets to educating tourists on environmental conservation which nature tourism does not. TIES (1990) creates a more common definition that ecotourism is "a responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people." Boo (1991) integrates the definition as a nature tourism which helps to conserve the protected areas, provide education and benefits to local communities. According to Ecotourism Australia (1991), ecotourism is sustainable to enjoy the natural environment that improves environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservation. Eleven years later, Page and Dowling (2002) suggest a relatively comprehensive definition with a five core dimensions framework to conclude ecotourism.

Firstly, ecotourism is a natural-based tourism (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1987; TIES, 1990; Boo, 1990; Valentine, 1992; Tickell, 1994; Goodwin, 1996; Fennell, 1999). Secondly, ecotourism is contributed to conserve the ecologically sustainability of development (TIES, 1990; Boo, 1991; Valentine, 1992; Goodwin, 1996; Diamantis, 1999; Fennell, 1999; Weaver and Lawton, 2007 cited by Hill and Gale, 2009). Thirdly, ecotourism should involve local participation and benefit to locals (TIES, 1990; Boo, 1991; Valentine, 1992; Goodwin, 1996; Fennell, 1999).

Fourthly, ecotourism helps to educate visitors and enhance understanding towards wildlife (Boo, 1990; Ecotourism Association of Australia, 1992; Fennell, 1999). Lastly, it satisfies the eco-tourists with the ecotourism experience. Eco-tourists can generate large amount of income while they are fully satisfied (Reichel and Uriely, 2008). It implies that the definition proposed by academic articles (such as Fennell, 1999; Weaver and Lawton, 2007) are more concerned to educate tourists and benefit local people rather than the organization (such as TIES, 1990; Ecotourism Australia, 1991).

In this article, the definition of ecotourism is a responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, benefit local communities, satisfy the tourists with ecotourism experience and enhance visitors' understanding on the substantial development of ecology, socio-cultural and economy. Moscardo et al. (2001) assumes that ecotourism should replace from the mass tourists into a smaller amount of eco-tourists with similar economic impacts. It indicates that ecotourism should focus on the value of eco-tourists, but not the volume of eco-tourists, while generating the amount of same profit.

3. The relationship between ecotourism and other forms of tourism

According to the typology of Newsome, Moore and Dowling (2002), it suggests that ecotourism is totally a subset of natural-based tourism and also a part of adventure and wildlife tourism (Hill and Gale, 2009). (See Figure 1)

Ecotourism is a subsection of natural-based tourism because it takes place in relatively undisturbed natural environments (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1987; TIES, 1990; Boo, 1990; Valentine, 1992; Tickell, 1994; Goodwin, 1996; Fennell, 1999; Weaver, 2008). The activities in ecotourism are often overlapping with other forms of tourist activities (Beeton, 1998). Ecotourism overlaps with wildlife tourism since eco-tourists go to the natural environments to see plants and animals. For example, people visit the safari and rainforest in Kenya. It also overlaps with adventure tourism since it requires high involvement of skills to do the physical activities such as cycling. This diagram gives some ideas on the connection between ecotourism and other forms of tourism. In addition, other researchers have also explained ecotourism is overlapping with other forms of tourism (Mieczkowski, 1995; Warn, 2001; Reynolds and Braithwaite, 2001; Fennell, 2008).

Figure 1 Relationship of ecotourism to other forms of tourism

From: Hill and Gale, 2009

4. New tourists

Paradigm shifts

Weaver and Oppermann (2000) have developed an ideal type paradigm to show the contrast between the guiding and emerging paradigms (see Figure 2).

A paradigm shift happened because the existing paradigm having some contradictions and cannot be used anymore (Kuhn, 1962). Dominant western environmental paradigm, which is a leading paradigm before, is a scientific paradigm with objective views (Weaver, 2001a). It is the views that people are superior to natural, separating from nature, managing and governing to the universe, individualism and capitalism. A new paradigm create to resolve the contradictions, replace the old paradigm and spread in society (ibid, 2001a). The paradigm shifts to be "green paradigm" which is an opposite of the dominant western environmental paradigm with subjective views. It is a human-oriented, bio-oriented, human are subset of nature, cannot predict and control the in, communal and socialism (ibid, 2001a). The shift to green paradigm creates growing number of green consumers which concern on environmental sustainability (Roberts, 1996, Chiutsi el at., 2011). Several researchers support that the green idea is becoming the leading trend in tourism industry (Wight, 1994; Diamantis and Ladkin, 1999). Furthermore, ecotourism is the most developed disciplines within green tourism whereas eco-tourists typify a subset of green tourists (Dolnicar and Matus, 2008).

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Figure 2 The dominant western environmental paradigm and the green paradigm as ideal types

From: Weaver and Oppermann, 2000

4.1 Definition of new eco-tourists

Eagles (1990) defines eco-tourist as people who visit a natural environment, however this definition was challenged by other researchers (Valentine, 1993; Wight, 1996a). They argued that eco-tourists should be people who have a particular motive for visiting and spending their time to participate in nature-based activities.

Horwich (1993) highlights the environmental behaviour of individuals can help to identify eco-tourists. It is in no doubt that eco-tourists are hard to identify because their motives are common with other forms of tourism (Wight, 1996b). Nevertheless, a relatively common definition was that individuals who are interested to observe, experience and learn about the natural landscape show interest in the concept and ethnic of ecotourism are eco-tourists. (Eagles and Cascagnette ,1995; Beeton ,1998)

4.2 Hard to soft continuum

Oram (1995) proposes that the "active to passive" continuum helps to identify eco-tourists. Afterwards, Weaver (2005b) combines Oram’s ideas and suggests a new framework that using the "hard-to-soft" continuum to segment eco-tourists as hard eco-tourists and soft eco-tourists (see Figure 3). Hard eco-tourists are characterised as having a strong sense on conserving the environment, deep interaction with nature, travel in small groups with self-arrangement in travel planning, low expectation of services and are more active in physical challenges; whereas, soft eco-tourists have less environmental commitment, travel with large tour groups with specific goals, are expected to be served and tend to be passive for movement and non-physical activities (Weaver, 2001b). Hard eco-tourists have a stronger desire to enhance the sustainability and are active to support the local people (Uysal et al, 1994). It indicated that hard eco-tourists tend to be more environmentally-oriented than soft eco-tourists.

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Figure 3 The ecotourism spectrum - "hard-to-soft" continuum

From: Weaver, 2005b

4.3 Demographic profile of eco-tourists

There are some studies on the demographics of eco-tourists. For example, eco-tourists tend to be male, are likely to be young, aged less than 35 years old and wealthier (Holden and Sparrowhawk, 2002). However, TIES (2000) found that they are mainly 35-54 years old, while this depends on activity. Eco-tourists are found to be highly educated mainly at college level and wealthy (Eagles and Cascagnette, 1995; Wight, 1996a; Beeton, 1998; Diamantis, 1999; TIES, 2000). They are usually "white collar" workers (Fletcher, 2009). The demographic profile is consistent with the research about eco-tourists in the coastal wetlands of Taiwan (Kerstetter, Hou and Lin, 2004). However, the research shows that eco-tourists spread from high levels to low levels of education, it implies that ecotourism is expanding to become a main trend of tourism (TIES, 2000). Moreover, the experienced eco-tourists prefer to stay between 8 and14 days (TIES, 2000).

For the nationality of eco-tourists, Whelan (1991) states most eco-tourists come from Europe, North America and Japan. Eagles and Higgins (1998) found out that eco-tourists come from USA, United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, France and Australia. It indicates that eco-tourists mainly come from economically developed and urbanised countries (Holden and Sparrowhawk, 2002).

4.4 Attitude and behaviour of eco-tourists

Eco-tourists can be distinguished by the characteristics, preference and benefit sought among mass tourists (Crossley and Lee, 1994). Towards the attitude, eco-tourists usually have high levels of concern on the environment (Weaver and Lawton,2010; Holden and Sparrowhawk, 2002). Over 66% of eco-tourists have faith in hotels should be accountable to guard the environment and help the local community actively (TIES, 2006). Nearly 45% of tourists value the finding of environmentally-friendly lodging to be essential (ibid, 2006). The wilderness setting is the most critical feature for the experienced eco-tourists (Wight, 1996). Eco-tourists are willing to spend more money than mass tourists (Reingold, 1993; TIES, 2000; Weaver and Lawton, 2010). They intend to spend money on environmentally responsible companies for services and products more (Cook, Stewart and Repass, 1992; Roberts, 1996; TIES, 2006; Weaver and Lawton, 2010). Eco-seekers intend more to support local initiatives such as assisting to educate other visitors, buy local products and help to conserve the natural environment (Kerstetter, Hou and Lin, 2004). Half of eco-tourists will support the ethical tour operators which are guaranteed to pay reasonable salaries to employees, contribute revenue to the locals and charities (Roberts, 1996; TIES, 2006). Eco-tourists are relatively concerned about the environment and comply with naturally-oriented more than human-oriented (Luzar et al., 1998; Weaver and Lawton, 2002). The behaviour above can distinguish the real eco-tourists from the mass tourists (Horwich, 1993). However, Wight (1996b) argues that the mass tourists' preference on choosing an activity is moving in the same direction with eco-tourists. It will not be easy to distinguish them by behaviour.

Moreover, for the trip accommodation preference, eco-tourists prefer to live in intimate and adventure-style accommodation, for instance, cabins, camping and bed and breakfasts (Wight, 1996). They prefer to choose country-style accommodation rather than grand accommodation (Reingold, 1993).

4.5 Motivations of eco-tourists

A motive is considered to be an internal factor that arouses, directs, and integrates a person’s behaviour (Murray, 1964). Personal needs are linked with motivations (Wight, 2001 cited by Weaver, 2001a). More eco-tourists want to purchase the products which are responsible for the natural environment (Wight, 1996). Eco-tourists are driven by a desire to experience and understand the wildlife and landscape in a remote wilderness area (Eagles, 1992). They are also driven by a desire to escape from the daily routine of life and get thrills and excitement instead (Holden and Sparrowhawk, 2002). According to the ecotourism statistical fact sheet (2000), the top two motivations for eco-tourists were enjoying the natural settings and seek for new experiences in new places (TIES, 2000). Although motivations are dynamically changing with different factors such as age and beliefs (Pearce, 1988; Wight, 1996b). Wight (2001) had summarized the various researches about motivation among eco-tourists in US, UK, Canada and Australia, the main motivation for eco-tourists is to experience nature, seeking for new experiences and learning local culture. In conclusion, all the results are consistent. Nonetheless, there is no generally agreement on the way to understand the eco-tourists’ motivations (Atkinson, Atkinson, and Hilgard, 1983; Gross, 1992; Davidoff, 1994; Fodness, 1994).

In addition, some researchers have distinguished the motivation of eco-tourists from the mass tourists. Eco-tourists are more focused on visiting to sparsely populated locations or remote areas to experience and learn about wildlife and indigenous culture, also more concerned on community benefit and tend to be more physical challenging (Crossley and Lee, 1994; Wight ,1996b).

5. Impacts and sustainability of ecotourism

5.1 Main arguments in ecotourism.

Ecotourism is a controversial topic. There are several conflicts between ecotourism.

Tickell (1994) proposes that ecotourism will not damage the natural environment and culture during travelling. Ecotourism is favoured to create a sustainable alternative to replace or improve the mass tourism, it will become long term interest among tourism professionals (Buckley, 1994; Kinnaird and O’Brien, 1996; Sirakaya and McLellan, 1998). However, Tisdell (1996) argues that it is unavoidable to create impacts on the environment because ecotourism is closely related to the natural resources. Tourism has a hidden power to become harmful to environments without careful planning and management (Weaver, 2008). National parks and protected areas are the most popular ecotourism destinations (Boo, 1990; Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996). More researches indicate that with the increasing awareness of ecotourism, the mass eco-tourists have brought about the negative impacts on the natural environment (Eagles, 1992).

There is contradiction between environmental conservation and creating pollution. Ecotourism is supposed by academic researchers to promote travel in low impact ways in order to minimize the environmental impact. The idea of non-disturbed and responsible may encourage eco-tourists to favour environmental behaviour (Hill and Gale, 2009). Ecotourism promotes the usage of low impact ways to travel such as trekking and cycling potentially resulting in a greater impact on the conservation of the environment. However, ecotourism related to international air travel (Hill and Gale, 2009). Duffy (2006) argues that the long distance international travel to the eco-destinations by eco-tourists will cause negative impacts by the transport emissions on a global scale. It is contradictory with the purpose of ecotourism which is proposed by academic researchers. Besides of developing the ecotourism which is presently so-called green tourism, we should put more focus on identifying, highlighting, resolving and minimizing the negative impacts of transportation correspondingly (Holden, 2009).

Moreover, ecotourism limits the local use of resources. Ecotourism is proposed to get the economic benefits by conserving the environment. However, some local communities are symbiotic and dependent on the natural environment (Ceballos-Lascurain and Lindberg, 1993). For example, local farmers need lands for agriculture and grazing and it may damage the nature landscape. Butcher (2005) debates that ecotourism may affect and limit the development and livelihood to those locals who are dependent on the natural resources. This is also a contestable topic in ecotourism. In order to evaluate and create more sustainable positive environmental impacts, the following framework can use as a guideline.

5.2 Triple bottom line sustainability (TBLS)

One of the core ideas of ecotourism is sustainable development. Brundtland Commission defines a broadly accepted definition for sustainable development as "to develop and meet the needs of the present without damage the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (Our Common Future, 1987). Sustainability is basically related to human connections with the natural environment (Buckley, 2003).

The triple bottom line (TBL) is a conceptual framework to encourage corporations not only to focus on the economic benefit, but also need to be concerned on the environmental and social positive and negative impacts (Buchsbaum, 2004). This framework contains three elements including environmental, social and economic (University of Michigan, 2002) (see Figure 4). A positive triple bottom line resulted in purely conserving environment, get purely revenue for local economy and benefit the local communities (Buckley, 2002). When these three elements of impacts overlap and balance, it is the direction to the sustainability. This framework may also suitable to use in the ecotourism industry.

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Figure 4 The three spheres of sustainability

From: University of Michigan, 2002

5.3 Impacts and sustainability

In the following sector, many different eco-activities in different countries will use to show as examples to look at the impacts and its sustainability on ecotourism.

Although eco-activities are based on low impacts travel to natural area, it is still highly contentious on its impacts. Ecotourism activities such as whale watching are ostensibly having weighty impacts on the eco-environment (Garrod and Fennell, 2004). On one hand, ecotourism can used to contribute to the economy and environmental conservation in developing countries potentially (Honey, 1999; Stronza and Gordillo, 2008). On the other hand, it is potentially threatening to the wildlife.

5.3.1 Impacts on the environment

For the impacts on creatures, many people think that whale watching is a sustainable, possible and better use of whales than killing the whales for merchandising (IFAW and TEC, 1995). The individual whale viewer may think they are watching whales in a sustainable and low impact way. On the other hand, the large number of whale watchers may damage the wildlife and natural habitats (Stronza and Gordillo, 2008). The high frequency of whale watching may disturb and change their foraging and hunting habits (Duffus, 1996). The engine noise of vessels is potentially disturbing the whale by close encounters (Norris, 1994; Orams, 2000). Although the eco-tourists are staying on the tour boat, whales will leave to other places when they feel fear by the nearby humans (Carwardine et al., 1998). They may leave their mates or original rich foraging habitats (Garrod and Fennell, 2004). In some case, whales get physical injuries and killed by the vessel strikes during close approach by the tour boat (WDCS, 2013). The tour boat may also divide whale mothers from their babies, the baby whale inability to seek for food and finally the baby whale will die (Carwardine et al., 1998).

For the plastic ingestion and pollution problem, human behaviours such as dropping rubbish from vessels and sea platforms also having negative impacts on nature environment and animals. It creates water pollution. Moreover, it may affect the alimentary processes and even kill cetacean if they eat the plastic rubbish (WDSC, 2011). There are some case studies that show whales are dying by plastic ingestion as much plastic debris is being found in their stomachs (WDSC, 2011).

In long term perspective, whales’ watchers may cause more negative impacts on the ecological ocean environment.

5.3.2 Impacts on environmental- economy

Ecotourism can contribute on re-investment on research and development. Ecotourism such as whale watching is having an important contribution on the cetacean conservation globally. The tour operator will donate a part of their revenue to invest on the expensive scientific research on living whales for cetacean conservation, especially while eco-tourists are aware of the dangers of whales and are desired to pay more money to contribute for the conservation (Berrow, 2002). It creates more funding sources to do research to understand the whales in order to save them.

5.3.3 Impacts on economy

Ecotourism is being focus on improving the economy the poor area all over the world and developing countries (Stone, 2002). Tourism can help developing the economy in developing countries through enhancing the national foreign exchange earnings, gross domestic product (GDP), employment rates and advance the socio-economic situation (Weaver, 1998). In Botswana which located in southern Africa, ecotourism is become a second leading economic sector which contributing 5% to the local GDP in 2006 (Gaolatlhe, 2006). The series ecotourism activities in Botswana generated a huge amount of money, approximately 16.3 million dollars in 2006 (Schuster, 2007). The revenue is vital to contributed on community development project and sustained their livelihood for the communities which involve in ecotourism (Mbaiwa, 2008). Schuster (2007) argues that it did not have significant contribution on the average annual revenue for household. However, the amount of money which distributes to the household is still very essential for the rural economic development (Mbaiwa, 2008).

One of the challenges of ecotourism is that ecotourism may cause the leakage of profit. Although ecotourism may generate more profit from eco-tourists, the revenue may not returned to local communities or environmental conservation when outside operators are involved. The revenue leakage from local to foreign ownership operators has become a big problem (Lindberg, 1994; Honey, 1999). A case study on Tortuguero shows as an example that less opportunity for village entrepreneurs to participate in the local tourism business because more outside investors invest their capital on improving the tourism facilities such as luxury hotel (Place, 1991). The outside operators are not willing to output their profit on conserving the environment and returning to local communities, regardless some eco-tourists are willing to pay more for conserving natural environments (Landell-Mills and Porras, 2002) However, Wood (2002) suggest that charging on the outsider ecotourism companies on the usage of local land such as lease fee and land rental fees can reduce the leakage and also benefit to local communities. In Maasai, the tour operators are regulated to charge by local communities when they used the village land and all action related to tourism (Snyder and Sulle, 2011). Also, to encourage more small scale and local entrepreneur in tourists’ attraction will reduce the leakage of profit and benefit to local people (Wood, 2002). In Tasmania in Australia, government run a small business strategy to provide more support, create a favourable business environment for local entrepreneurs to do business (State of Tasmania, 2011).

In order to move towards becoming more sustainable development, the economic revenue may be used in more different ways to protect and prevent the harmness to natural species. For example, the economic revenue can re-invest to improve technology to minimise the effect on whales and invest in ways to develop a more ecologically and generally acceptable way of development.

5.3.4 Impacts on social-economy

Ecotourism create jobs opportunities. In 2006, ecotourism in Botswana offers over 8800 jobs to local people who live in rural areas where no manufacture industry (Schuster, 2007). Ecotourism has the potential to encourage for the community development (Fennell and Eagles, 1990; Wight, 1993; Mbaiwa, 2008). Rural communities can only rely on agriculture with low income in rural communities without developing ecotourism (ibid, 2008).

Tourism is potentially can help conserving the natural resource as long as it is well-managed (Goodwin, 1996). The income from ecotourism are used as a funds to re-invest on providing social service and community development project such as 16 bed photographic lodge and cultural tourism centre for expanding the scale of ecotourism and improving the facilities in ecotourism (Mbaiwa, 2008). However, Mbaiwa (2007) found that Botswana is facing the management problems of lacks of re-investment, mismanagement and misappropriation of funds because the local community missing the business management skills. They keep the funds in the bank rather than re-invest the funds on other aspects (ibid, 2007). State of Tasmania (2011) states that training need to be provided to the local communities to educate them about the entrepreneur and business investment skills.

5.3.5 Impact on social

Botswana is a good example to demonstrate the success of ecotourism of getting involves the local community in decision making related to ecotourism (Mbaiwa, 2008). They formed a community-based organisation called "Trusts" about ecotourism in many villages, which constituted by local community, in order to enhance the participation of local. Local community can get access to the natural resource for ecotourism, make their own management plan for ecotourism and act as a representative of locals to bargain with government or other organization (ibid, 2008).

Whale watching can be a media for educating and enhancing the consciousness of cetacean conservation (Garrod and Fennell, 2004). It can influence the eco-tourists to behave in a more environmentally-friendly approach which will not only benefit the destination but also have a long term effect even when the eco-tourists go back to their country (Orams, 1997). Stem et al. (2003) argues that economic incentive, activity and occupation may change the behaviour of people, but it may not change their thoughts and beliefs. This indicates that ecotourism may change the local economy, but it cannot fundamentally change the social and culture conception to be more sustainable (Stronza and Gordillo, 2008).

The economic benefit of ecotourism becomes the incentive for conserving natural setting. Ecotourism can deliver more benefits to the local community in a more direct way (Weaver, 2001b). The increasing concern on cetacean conservation as well as the economic benefit motivates the local community to continue to conserve the cetacean (Hoctor, 2003). Since ecotourism is highly reliant on sustaining the fascination of the natural setting, the local community are encouraged to protect the natural areas to earn money from eco-tourists who pay to sight-see (Ross and Wall, 1999; Kiss, 2004). More environmental practitioners are using the incentive-based tactic to motivate local communities to minimize the influence on the natural landscape by changing their behaviour (Science2action, 2011). In a different perspective, incentive may not be a sustainable way to encourage the local communities for conservation.

West and Carrier (2004) argue that local communities input a lot of resource and effort on conservation; they rarely gain a fair return. Locals will only do conservation when they see benefit (Walpole and Goodwin, 2001). Correspondingly, it was questioned that local communities may be doing something which may be harmful to the biodiversity once they get adequate benefits (BCSNet, 1993 cited by Stronza and Gordillo, 2008).

6. Methodology

In literatures, qualitative and quantitative researches are the popular paradigms that used in ecotourism discipline. The quantitative methods such as questionnaire and reliable second hand data are used to collect the demographical and descriptive data such as age, gender and characteristic of the eco-tourists. Moreover, it is popular to use likert scale in questionnaire to test the level of agreement on the eco-tourists motives and behaviour scales. Kerstetter, Hou and Lin (2003) and Holden and Sparrowhawk (2002) are the examples of using likert scale. Sending mail survey and using the official second-hand data is also popular to collect the large volume data to understand the trend of ecotourism. However, 60% of researches are using qualitative approach to do ecotourism research on finding the eco-tourists’ characteristics, motives and environmental impacts.

For the qualitative methods, case study is often used in tourism literatures (Ryan, 1995). Nearly 25 literatures are using case studies and usually focus on particular regions to investigate the in-depth motives, problems, impacts and challenges of ecotourism. Also, informal and unstructured interview is also popular in doing ecotourism researches. The advantage of informal interviews can create a more natural setting environment for interviewees to answer.

Under the observation, 60% or above are doing periodical research since most of the researcher would like to target the same customers to increase the consistency the research. However, periodical research may miss other important moment to capture information or behaviour for research.

Generally, ecotourism research is an interpretivism approach because the research is qualitative and inductive. Ecotourism gather the information and generate a new theory and result. The qualitative research creates a relatively subjective view on evaluation since the ecotourism research always concluded by the researcher’ own opinion in the conclusion (Backman and Morais, 2001). The interpretivist is looking for a real understanding of subjective understanding (Roth and Mehta, 2002).

There are little good researches in ecotourism which integrate and parallel the quantitative and qualitative in the research. Stone (2002) demonstrate a good example of parallel both methods to improve the accuracy. The mix method of research can strengthen the research result and credibility.

In the ecotourism field, researchers like using qualitative methods especially case studies and interviews to do research. It is good to have depth understanding on tourists’ behaviours and motives. However, there are not popular to use mail survey in this field. For example, Wight (1996a) used the mail survey in his research but the reply rate is low.

7. Conclusion

Ecotourism is a good example for demonstrating the niche tourism since it is a relatively bigger, fast growing sector within niche market.

n the process of completing this study a number of potential opportunities for further research surfaced that due to the time frame and scope of this thesis could not be examined, but that would nonetheless be worthy research projects. Conducting a tourist survey to gather information on visitor demographics, activities, spending patterns, satisfaction levels, willingness-to-pay, etc. would provide managers at both JNFP and DNFP with much needed data on their clientele. Given that most tourists

currently visit the Parks during holiday periods suggests that the timing of such a survey would need to be carefully planned. Examining how communities could most effectively be involved in planning processes would be a potentially valuable study. China is a socialist country in transition, and traditional, Western, public participation techniques may not be effective or appropriate. Given the apparent confusion over matching tourist markets with products offered, market research and the