The Spirituality And Architecture Theology Religion Essay

Published Date: 23 Mar 2015

Spirituality is an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality. The essence of spirituality is the search to know our true selves, to discover the real nature of consciousness. In other words, it is a constant discovery of the incredible, our real self, and a quest of our true being, why we are, who we are and where we belong. This has been a part of the eternal quest of man from times immemorial. These questions have been answered differently by many but are subject to one's own belief interpretation and perception.

Sri Aurobindo in "Indian Spirituality and Life (1919)"says "Man does not arrive immediately at the highest inner elevation and if it were demanded of him at once, he would never arrive there. At first he needs lower supports and stages of ascent, he asks for some line of thought, dogma, worship, image, sign, and symbols, some indulgence and permission of mixed half natural motive on which he can stand while he builds up in him the temple of spirit."(Sri Aurobindo, Indian Spirituality and Life, 1919) Man's quest of truth, reality and peace has been unending. Overawed with the infinite nature, whatever he could not comprehend he attributed that to the glory of nature. Man's intellect cannot accept anything that is unknown, unseen and has no fixed shape or form. Thus to satisfy his intellectual curiosity man gave physical form to the divine being.

Spirituality is our attempt to become aware of our spirit. "Spiritual architecture' refers to any building system that facilitates this awareness. It is, an act of highlighting or bringing forth the self, not by rejecting matter but by manifesting it in matter, at various levels and in multiple forms. E.V. Walter in Placeways, defines spiritual space as … "a specific environment of phenomena that are expected to support the imagination, nourish spiritual experience, and convey spiritual truth" (Walter,E.V., Placeways: A Theory of the Human Environment, 75).

Spiritual spaces can be found in nature or they can be a constructed space. A spiritual space found in nature is a place designated by individuals or groups as such a place. It is a distinct space, a place whose character sets it apart from its surroundings. They are distinct from typical or commonly found places. The designation of a place as spiritual comes from the human need to establish a connection with inner truth. A place that is spiritual to one person or group of people may not be spiritual to others.

Architecture of a space can invoke all the senses, help one concentrate one's positive energies to calm a disturbed mind and take a peaceful stable mind beyond the physical. It is an inevitable part of life. It attempts to reflect man's source and the reason of being in several varied ways. Architecture is more than mere physical shelter or symbolic artefacts. They are catalyst towards our "dwelling", between our being and the world. Architecture, together with the other arts, has, since time immemorial, been one of the most powerful means to pursue and realize this quest and give it physical-symbolic expression: how to create an identity and a place for our being from within the vast, shapeless and infinite extent of time and space; how to affirm our presences and gain a foothold, in the universe. (Gunter Dittmar, Upon the Earth, Beneath the Sky: The Architecture of Being, Dwelling & Building, 2001)

Successful architectural expression is one, which is able to do both; provide an enriching experience and an unforgettable image. It becomes more important while expressing spirituality in material to provide for an experience of, both the form and the formless, one perceptible by the senses and other beyond senses.

Since sacred spaces are separate from everyday places in a designated precinct, value is placed on the journey and arriving at the sacred place. The path and the ritual journey are part of the sacred experience.

It is a universal goal of mankind to seek or to create spiritual spaces. What is a spiritual space, and what are the qualities which describe that space? What defines spirituality and the space it makes and how does this form relate to us today?

RESEARCH QUESTION

What are the attributes of spiritual spaces?

1.2 NEED FOR JUSTIFICATION

The current crisis of environmental degradation is also a crisis of places. People are systematically building meaningless places. We must develop a way of understanding the built environment and the natural landscape. True renewal, will require a change in the way we structure experience for understanding both the natural land and the constructed world.

Since, the spiritual dimension and moral obligation have been discarded by the modern. Materialism divorced from ethics has corrupted the society. Therefore, more and more people are turning to Spirituality, Yoga and Meditation. Religious people are searching for the lost grid of spirituality in religion. Thus, there is a growing need of buildings to cater this need of people.

There are spatial qualities and architectural elements based on experiential background and emotional attachments.

To identify and define these connections, one has to go beyond the basic observation of signs and symbols, and analyse the spatial qualities and architectural elements which stimulate senses.

1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

A brief study of design tools, which are capable of making the experience soul stirring. These include - form, space, volume, geometry, scale and proportions, light and colour.

Historical and symbolic aspects of spiritual spaces have already been discussed. (Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol. 2; Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture, Sir Banister Fletcher, Dan Cruickshank; Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Period), Percy Brown) Thus this study will be focused towards the very fundamental architectural criterion and spatial impression on individual's mind.

The study does not discuss in detail many issues, like evolution, construction, etc. But focuses on the internal design aspects, concerning the designing of a spiritual space, which are known and acknowledged.

Study should avoid commenting on the beliefs and rituals of various religions, but should debate towards the evolution and change of spatial qualities and form.

1.4 LIMITATION FOR THE RESEARCH

Study of sacred spaces of all faiths is not possible within the limited time frame.

A study of the built environment shall be undertaken which shall include only the spiritual aspect, the qualitative parameters and not the technical evaluation of the built form.

Considering the time frame provided for the completion of the study, primary case studies taken are done from Delhi only.

It would have been desirable to study how sacred can be woven into the everyday as well.

1.5 METHODOLOGY

The study is intended to be broken into subheads that will make it easier to understand the topic that talks about spiritual dimensions in sacred spaces and architectural qualities influencing human behaviour.

STAGE 1

IDENTIFYING NEED FOR THE STUDY

Trying to find the objectives of study.

Setting up the scope and limitations.

STAGE 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

Through the survey of all possible data related to the topic or on architecture and human behaviour. This stage of the research includes collecting data that is directly or indirectly related to spiritual aspect of architectural spaces. This has been done through the printed form or from the internet, articles and discussions of peoples relating to the study.

Literature survey aims at sorting out case studies both inside and outside India and also at getting an review of what are the recent developments and events that are taking place in the field of spiritual architecture.

STAGE 3

LITERATURE SURVEY 2

A study has been undertaken to understand the mental conditions of a man in different spaces and its relation with the creator. Through this the topic got defined and the question got framed.

STAGE 4

INTERRELATING DIFFERENT SACRED STRUCTURES

As our concern is on human being, the structures affecting human mind around the world should have similarities. Search for the overlapping of spatial qualities in sacred structures around the world.

STAGE 5

FRAME WORK

To make a framework of different issues and principles studied which can be applied on case studies. List of issues formulate questionnaire for the case studies and interviews.

List of issues:

Open and closed space

Portal or entrance

Path and surrounding landscape

Destination point

Form, geometry, proportion and scale

Articulation and symbolism

Light, colour and sound

Touch, smell and taste

STAGE 6

Fig 1.1 ISKCON Temple, New Delhi

Fig 1.2 Cathedral Church of Redemption, New Delhi

Fig 1.3 Jama Masjid, New DelhiCASE STUDIES

ISKCON TEMPLE, NEW DELHI

CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF REDEMPTION, NEW DELHI

JAMA MASJID,NEW DELHI

Case studies are selected to understand the sacredness and the spiritual consciousness through the built, the purpose behind it. Case studies will throw some light on the spatial qualities of spiritual spaces. Suitable case studies will be undertaken to examine the need of the topic and its negligence in present day scenario.

STAGE 7

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF CASE STUDY

All the information collected so far was then analysed thoroughly. An analysis of experiencing the sacred buildings to out the design tools that an architect can employ to create the desired spiritual experience.

STAGE 8

DESIGN IDEA FORMULATION

After assimilation of all matter and analysis of material collected, conclusions are derived, as to, how an architect can use design tools to stimulate all the senses and make the experience of a spiritual space spiritual.

CHAPTER 2: SPIRITUAL ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR

2.1 SPATIAL QUALITIES AND HUMAN MIND

The sacred is never intentionally chosen, but in some way or the other revels itself.

-Eliade (1963)

The meaning of structured space, a meaning which we believe lies in its dynamic relationship to its human personality and to our mental health.

Fig 2.1 The self- Hindu thought (Source: Prof. H.D. Chayya)The environment in which humans operate has an important influence on their wellbeing and performance. Our structured environment is so important and, influence direct or indirect, on the shaping of personality and the choice as well as the attainment of goals. Emotional design and tangible interaction are compelling forms of enhancing user engagement. The combination of these modes of interaction can create a new dimension of human experience when physical movement in space or the manipulation of objects triggers emotions within an individual. By seamlessly integrating expressive tangible interaction techniques with ambient intelligence, that is, by creating environments that are sensitive and responsive to human gestures, meaningful experiences can be constructed.

Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter and Krik Bach found in their detailed studies of one urban situation, that physical spaces play a very large part in the formation of community relationships …and even minor architectural feature, such as the position of staircase and mailboxes, had important effects on the social life of people. "The architect who builds a house or who designs a site plan, who decides which direction the houses will face and how close together they will be, also is, to a great extent, deciding the pattern of social life among the people who will live in those houses."(Strengthening Weak Ties: Social Networks and Student Housing, Thesis, B. Design in Architecture, University of Florida, 2011)

Geoffrey Scott's book "The Architecture of Humanism", 1914, he said," The architect models in space as a sculptor in clay. He designs the space as a work of art; that is, he attempts through his means to excite a certain mood in those who enter it."

The view has been elaborated by others, among them Bruno Zevi, Architecture as Space, 1957: "the facade and walls of house. Church, or palace, no matter how beautiful they may be, is only the container, the box…; the content is the internal space.'

As Geoffrey Scott suggests," Space itself is not obvious, cannot be visually perceived; one sees only objects in space; or the structural members that encloses the space. Space itself can only be sensed- that is, felt; its quality is apprehended by means of the senses, but its effect is upon the emotions, and cannot readily be rationalized, measured or depicted.

One can only gauge and describe accurately enough the adequacy or structural soundness, its provision for warmth, ventilation, sanitation, light, and other physical factors.

One can criticize its components in terms of proportion, texture, colour and other aesthetic considerations.

Fig. 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4 (Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture - Form, Space and Order 3rd edition)

Fig. 2.5 Non-sign II-art installation by Annie Hans and Daniel Mihalyo But beyond all of these, there is an overall effect exerted upon one's consciousness by architectural space which defies precise definition."(Scott, Geoffrey, The Architecture of Humanism, 1914)

Architecture truly conceived, is nothing less than the conscious and careful determination of our whole structured environment and leaves an impression on individual's mind, which can be controlled. Like a stage setting that controls the movements of actors and defines where and under what circumstances they can meet, our habitat channels our movements and influence our contacts. If we think of buildings at all, it is usually when we are jolted by some outrage, such as a stalled elevator or a leaky roof, long columned corridor, a double height space. (Walter, E.V., 1988, Placeways: A Theory of the Human Environment)

Table 2.1 The concept of the spirit of a space (Source: Author)Some of the architectural integrant which affect human psychology are:

Five senses

Hearing

Touch

Sight

Taste

Smell

The basic elements

Space

Air

Fire

Water

Earth

Instruments of perception (to acquire inward)

Ear

Skin

Eyes

Tongue

Nose

Work organs

(to act outwards)

Speech communication (exit)

Hands work (finger)

Feet mobility

Anus discard

Genitals procreate

Control centre force

Mind (flow of thoughts and emotions)

Intellect (power of discrimination)

The presiding force ("PRANA" or the life force)

The cosmos consciousness or the supreme energy

Architecture

Silence

Climate

Light

-

Plumbing

Landscape transformation

Acoustics

Weather

Colour

-

Cooling

Related technological fields

Vibrations

Texture surfaces

Texture forms

-

Repose odour

 

Emotional Design

Emotion is a fundamental aspect of what makes us human; it shapes our cognition, perception, memory, and learning and it colours our past, present, and future experiences. Emotional value is important in design for enhancing user experience as Donald Norman explains: "Our attachment is really not to the thing, it is to the relationship, to the meanings and feelings the thing represents." Emotional design then, provides an aesthetic interaction that engages users on an emotional, meaningful, and psychological level. Whereas affective computing focuses on the system recognizing and adjusting to what it believes the user is feeling, emotional design focuses on the emotional experience.

Physical and Tangible Interfaces

Human movement is often spurred by intention and motivation within people. Tangible user interfaces allow users to interact with virtual information by sensing and manipulating physical environments through objects, surfaces, and spaces.

Relation of architecture and human psychology is far interrelated. Appropriate use of various architectural components has the capacity of enlightening the atmosphere whereas inappropriate use does the opposite. The building forms, the functions incorporated in it, colours, negative and positive spaces in and around it may be the few points but architecture is directly attached with human psychology from conscious to subconscious level.

2.2 PLACEBO EFFECT: SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION

For decades, scientists have tried to understand the mysterious power of what is called the "placebo effect." Placebo studies prove how powerfully we are influenced - not just emotionally but physiologically - by how we perceive the world around us.

Articulation and architectural conditions in homes can have powerful and long-lasting psychological impact. The placebo effect offers a clue that points to how we might create curative environments.

The placebo effect as a therapy, the fact that believers in a wide variety of ancient "faith" systems also claim similar effects, as have modern scientists who study mind/body medicine.

Fig 2.6 Illustration of the interrelationship of stress, belief and how they may impact on the placebo effect and the relaxation response. (Source: http://www.sciencedirect.com)In other words, it impacts an ancient part of our brain which we share with many other species. Endogenous opioids, which are naturally produced by the brain in small amounts and play a key role in the relief of pain and anxiety, have been implicated in placebo analgesia.

CHAPTER 3: SACRED SPACE AND SPIRITUALITY

3.1 OPEN SPACES: AS SACRED SPACES

Does spirituality needs sacred spaces and vice versa? Does spirituality really is incomplete without architecture? Is it not the quality of the inner life, open to a virtual dimension that transcends the sensible, that matters?

Fig 3.1 Lodhi Garden, New Delhi (Source: Author)Open space has two different meanings that work together to create sacred places that are inclusive and aware of many elements that may be exclusive to any potential user of the space. An open space is open to the public, meaning anyone of any race, faith, culture, or belief is able to enter the space. The space is for the whole community of different people rather than just one particular group. Or, an open space is one that feels welcoming and non-threatening to those that spend time in it; it feels like home for the soul. The design of the space and the placement of features such as portals, paths, universal symbols that have meaning across all religions, nations and ethnic groups, lend to the openness of the space by inviting those outside of the space to enter it. The combination of a space being open on both a physical and spiritual level is what makes up "Open Spaces, Sacred Places."

3.2 ATTRIBUTES OF A SPIRITUAL SPACE

Architecture is the first pioneer on the highway toward the adequate realization of inner self. For this means it levels space for self-realization, informs his external environment, and builds a fit place for the aggregation of those assembled having similar faith, as a defence against the threatening of tempest, against rain, and savage animals.

Besides the variety of buildings and design approaches in the effort to create a space where man can feel spirituality, there can be found some common design tools that help to create the soul stirring experience. The following discuss some of these parameters.

The portal or threshold is the entryway into the sacred space, which helps to separate the space from the greater surrounding space and invites you to step inside. A portal can be created with a hardscape such as a gate or a portico, or with simple planting.

Fig 3.2 Portal to Garden, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com)

Fig 3.4 Open space, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com)

Fig 3.3 Pathway in a Garden, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com)The path invites exploration and discovery along the route. It meanders through spaces, fuels the imagination and entices one to see where it may lead.

The destination point is an end point within a space that inexplicably draws visitors. It may be a resting place, such as a bench, or a beautiful natural feature, such as a gurgling fountain or rain curtain. It is a point within the sacred space where those who visit always end up. Sacred spaces may have more than one destination point.

Space and Volume

Fig. 3.5 Space defining elements, Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture - Form, Space and Order 3rd edition) Space, whether of the individual or the universal, possesses a unique quality of experiencing. It is hyper sensitive, besides being super potential. Sense of surround defines the space as separate and apart from the overall outdoor environment. Visitors who enter the space feel as though they are entering into a room. There are natural or man-made boundaries (or a combination of both) that delineate the space within the greater environment. These boundaries provide a subtle feeling of shelter, enabling people to feel safe and enjoy their time spent in the space. (Nicolas, W. Robert Leo A Daly, 2004, building Type Basics for Places of Worship)

By generating a continuous flow of spaces, each act movement becomes an experience. Each component of architecture becomes important and provides for this linkage. It can be by repetition of elements, alteration in scale and proportion, staggering, light, texture, and colour and also by using perspective as a device to accentuate the drama. (Robinson,J., 1979, Religious Buildings)

Fig. 3.6 Form and Space, Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture - Form, Space and Order 3rd edition) Form and Geometry

Architectural form is the point of contact between mass and space "Architectural Form required to fulfil its functional requirements for that is the reason for its being - both physical and spiritual." (Saarinen, E., op.cit. pg 14)Every form conveys a meaning. It is important to understand how form can transmit a spiritual meaning. Certain shapes and forms are conventional associated with certain meanings.

Scale and Proportion

Fig. 3.7 Vastupurusa (Source: Charles Correa, Vistara; Architecture of India)

Fig. 3.8 Vitruvius Man (Source: Leonardo Da vinci.stanford.edu)Scale refers to the size of something compared to reference standard or size of something else. Deciding the scale of a sacred space is a common design concern. Some blend into the fabric of the neighbouring community and landscape; others stands out as landmarks, easily recognized for their special purpose. Generally the sacred spaces take monumental scale to create an atmosphere of awe, mystery and magnificence. The scale of the interior spaces, the size and weight of doors, and the exposed structural columns and beams all serve to denote the special quality of the sacred space.

Fig. 3.9 LeCorbusier modular Man (Source: Corbusier, The modulor)Proportion refers to the proper or harmonious relation of one part to another or to the whole. While the designer usually has a range of choices when determining the proportions of things, some are given to us by the nature and the man himself.

Human body proportions are used not merely as numbers with an inherent harmony, but as a system of measurements that could govern lengths, surfaces, and volumes. It can lend itself to an infinity of combination; it ensures unity with diversity; the miracle of numbers.

Proportional buildings and scale link spiritual architecture to the mathematical structure of the cosmos. The building should relate well not only to the human scale but also the psyche.

Light and Colour

Fig. 3.12 Khajuraho Temple (Source: Kota Kesava Karthik)

Fig. 3.11 Prayer at Church (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org)Light is regarded to be the most important component in definition of space or the manifestation of form in an architectural space; it not only defines the space but also gives meaning to it. In this study one looks at how light can create a place of worship; how to make a quiet, enclosed, isolated space, space full of activities, filled with vitality.

Fig. 3.10 Khirki Masjid (Source: Jegmet Wangchuk)

Colour is the attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its environment. We respond to bright colours, for instance red, with the emotional part of our brain. First, our muscles get tense, and then we lean towards the colour. Our respiration and heart rate goes up and the blood pressure starts rising. The opposite reactions occur when we see light colours such as blue. Our muscles relax, the heart and respiration rate drops and the blood pressure lowers.

It also affects the visual weight of a form. Gradation of colour exist; from pale to brilliant; from cold to warm. Thus colour expression is also full of meaning.

Texture is an important asset of colour. It is the visual and especially tactile quality given to a surface by shape and arrangement, and the proportions of the parts. Texture also determines to which the surfaces of a form reflect or absorb incident light. It gives an expression to the surface, thereby contributing to the overall impression.

Color

Colors Characteristics

Color's Actions

Red

Stimulating, exciting, provocative, dynamic

Increased enthusiasm, interest, and energy

Pink

Happy, sweet, spirited, romantic, youthful

Calm and relaxing feelings

Brown

Wholesome, rich, durable, rustic, sheltering

A connection with the natural earth and the stability this brings

Orange

Friendly, vital, tangy, energizing, inviting

Increases creativity and gives relief from things becoming too serious

Blue

Dependable, cool, serene, constant, quiet

Broadens your perspective in learning new information

Green

Refreshing, healing, fresh, soothing, nature

Gives freedom to pursue new ideas

Purple

Sensual, elegant, mysterious, regal, spiritual

Calms over activity or energizes from depression

Black

Strong, classic, elegant, powerful, mysterious

Opens the door to mystery and prepares for the unknown

Yellow

Warming, sunny, cheerful, luminous, enlightening

Gives clarity for decision making and sharper memory and concentration skills

white

Pure, bright, innocent, lightweight, pristine

Starts a fresh beginning

Fig. 3.13 Colours in Culture (Source: www.informationisbeautiful.net)

Table. 3.1 Concept of Colours (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org)Symbolism

Symbolism

We can identify iconography depicted in architecture of these buildings as the signs and symbols and the inspirations taken directly from some other structure or theories and thoughts spread across the world.

A symbol is the juxtaposition that is, a co-optation of visible forms brought forth to demonstrate some invisible matter. One needs to identify with one's religion that is where symbols play an important role.( Jose'Pereira, 2004, The Sacred Architecture of Islam)

Table. 3.2 Iconography in major religions (Source: Jose'Pereira, The Sacred Architecture of Islam, 2004)Sacred symbolism is considered to be present in every major religious building, around the world. Iconography of sacred geography in three major religions of the world:

TEMPLE

MOSQUE

CHURCH

MOUNTAIN

Shikhara

Minaret

Lofty towers

STONE

Idol

One that in Kabba

Altar

TREE

Present in courtyard

Cross

WATER

Sarovar

Ritual ablutions in courtyard

Place of Baptism

But is it signs and symbolism only which draw an impact on our behaviour. When we get in to some space, is the aesthetical and visual perception only gets conceived in our mind.

Fig. 3.15 Temple Bells (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.14 Prayer at church (Source: http://www.mlive.com)

Fig. 3.16 Reciting Quran in Mardrsa (Source: http://www.mlive.com)SOUND

The reverberant sound quality created by the proportions and the materials of sacred spaces set them apart from the ordinary. Sacred music, singing, chanting, the ringing of temple and church bells and intoning of prayers characterize specific rituals. The change in sound quality from the cacophony of the street to the harmony resonant silence signifies entry into a sacred space.

TOUCH

The experience of touch identifies a sacred space; the weight of the door handle, the textures of materials on walls and seating, and the hardness of stone underfoot. A change in temperature, such as the transition from the blazing heat of a busy city street into the cool and solitude of an interior can also denote a sacred space.

Most of the textures are touched by vision, iconography, formed an integral part of a temple and a church architecture to convey the complete narrative.

Though the following two are not translated into architectural terms, but they form an indispensable part of a complete spiritual experience.

SMELL

Fig. 3.20 Garlands for devotees (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.18 IItr, scented oil

Fig. 3.19 Votive Candles (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.17 Agarbatti (Source: http://www.mlive.com)Incense is used extensively in the Roman Catholic and Buddhist traditions as a symbol of prayers going up to the deity. The smell of agarbatti and the flowers offered to deity are indispensable parts of the rituals for Hindu as well as many other faiths. The incense sticks are used even in meditation centers as the intoxicating smell stimulates your senses to the positive and calms you down.

TASTE

Fig. 3.23 Christmas cake (Source: www.google.com)

Fig. 3.22 Korma (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.21 Laddo (Source: Kota Kesava Karthik)Though this sensory experience is missing in many of the architecture, it still is an integral part of many religious experiences. All the Hindu temples have Prasad and Chanramrit (sweet water) as an indispensable part of the worshipping ritual. Some believe that this custom of sharing sweets is a memorial of the sweetness of the deities. Christians offer holy water in a similar manner. The prasad is obligatory in the Gurudwara too.

3.3 SPIRITUAL DIMENSION IN EXISTING BUILDING TYPOLOGY

3.3.1 THE HINDU TEMPLE

The Hindu temple is essentially the "House Of God". It is not a place for congregational worship. Though congregation for religious ceremonies do take place, but the worshipper's communication with the divine is his own personal experience. The worshipper goes individually to the house of God and invokes his blessings. Stella Kramisch, in her book, "The Hindu Temple" says," the intellect of the age, absorbed largely in divine contemplation, is reflected in the temple idol, where spiritual dominates the material." (Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol. 2)

Space

Fig. 3.24 Typical plan of a Hindu Temple (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.25 parts of a Hindu Temple (Source: Author)The sanctuary as a whole is called a vimana, and the pyramidal or tapering roof above this is called the shikhara. Inside the vimana is a dark chamber, called the grbha-griha, sanctum; and this is entered by a doorway on one side. In front of the doorway is a pillared hall, or mandapa, which serves as an assembly for devotees. In some temples, the mandapa is detached from the vimana by an open space. Leading up to the mandapa is a porch or ardh-mandapa.

Form and Geometry

The sanctum seems to be similar to cave like form. Sculpture is an integral part of the composition in stone. A detailed analysis of temple architecture reveals that much of its character was the result of repetition of motifs. Figurative decoration took precedence till the roof level. Apart from being influenced by the man and nature, the temple form relationship with the mountain has an architectural symbolic significance.

Scale and Proportions

The sacred geometry and proportions of a temple have always been greatly influenced by silpas, treatises codifying rules for Art, Sculpture and architecture and the Vastushastra in particular, a book setting down the rules of temple architecture.

Analysing the temple in elevation, the superstructure serves as a spiritual tower, the function of which is to lead, from a broad base to a point where all lines converge. They merge ultimately into one. This point is the source of highest energy and is depicted by a lotus. Even the outer facade becomes a rhythmic succession of planes and multiple elements, the axis linking the inner chamber to the tower is never lost.

The Portal, the Path and the Journey

Observation shows that all parts of the temple plan and elevation exhibits manifestation of the spiritual. The deities engraved on the exterior surface are the focuses for the devotee. His journey begins from the exterior of the temple. The rite of circumambulation (invariable in clockwise direction) is also an extension of relating or communing with the deity. This in a way prepares the devotee to approach the sanctum. In the sanctum called garbha-griha, the devotees get in touch with the highest self, which is reborn through initiation and leads to perception and realization, it thus becomes the source of temple's power and essence.

The movement inwards through sequence of doorways and series of thresholds; the perspective effect achieved in it suggests the pulse of the devotee penetrating the heart of the building.

Light And Colour

Light is used as a tool highlighting the spatial experience. It reinforces the contrast in exterior and interior of the temple. The interior is dim (in the halls) Sanctum (enough to see the deity); on the exterior the illumination is bright. This represents the Hindu doctrine of two aspects of reality, the unmanifest (darkness, formlessness) and the manifest (light and formation), with the latter from the former.

It is important to stress that through different intensities of light the interior is graded into areas of lesser and greater importance. Thereby, place of prime importance can be highlighted by greater contrast.

Iconography is common in temples, different coloured stones have been extensively used in temple construction. They vary from pure white marble to black granite. Bright colours symbolizing celebration and happiness of a divine life are often used in temples.

The finished structure showed a fine appreciation of mass and volume; and effects of light and shadow to a marked degree. Every part of the building generations of conscious and sub-conscious knowledge. This has made Indian temples poetry in stone, mute sentinels to the skill of their unnamed builders.

3.3.2 THE MOSQUE

Masjid or mosque, which for the 'prostration' is a building which provided space for the community activity. Historically the physical form seems to have evolved from the house of Prophet Muhammad at Medina. Metaphysically, the mosque is a building erected over an invisible axis terminating in Mecca. Conceptually a mosque is means to focus brotherhood of Islam. Ka'ba is the spiritual center of Islam. It is o hollow cube of stone rebuilt many times, situated at the center of Mecca. There is a strong metageometrical concept, where the Ka'ba is seen as a global center and the entire world is oriented towards it.

Fig. 3.26 Parts of an Indian Mosque (Source: Author)In Islamic architecture we find that many things are in five or sixes, almost as if echoing the number of five or six Pillars of Islam (witness, prayer, alms, fasting, pilgrimage and also holy war). The five elements are:

1. Mihrab

2. Minbar (pulpit)

3. Maqsura (Screen)

4. Fountain (tank for ablution)

5. Kursi (desk supporting Quran)

Two functional elements are:

Minaret

Courtyard

Form and Space

In Islamic architecture space is fundamental and suggests multidirectionality. Space here is not divorced from form. The different parts express dematerialization, hypostyle hall gives primary expression to divine limitlessness while the domed square speaks of the divine unity.

Dome is an important feature in mosque design, symbolizing heaven. It has been treated differently to procure different effects, however, conceptually it stands representing heaven as contrast to the earthly square base which supports it.

In open-plan space flows from uncovered to covered portion and back again, whereas in closed plan space the portal and prayer hall become distinct. The minaret in each case designates the area as a place. Again inside the prayer hall in case of an open plan mosque the limitlessness of space is accentuated whereas in closed plan mosque, it is the unity of space which is emphasized. Once again one is expressing here that, infinity and oneness are in fact the architectural embodiments of an understanding of the divine nature.

Mosque by the very nature of its purpose is expected to be multidimensional, the space extending in all direction. The mosque has certain important features relating to which the attributes of the space can be achieved. These associations contribute to the overall experience, they are: Mihrab- it is a directional niche, it marks the direction towards Ka'ba. Minbar- it is raised pulpit often canopied with a staircase. It is a symbol of authority. Fountain- is related to the act of ablution to purify the body or parts of body before prayer. Minaret- it is an ancillary structure which is necessary for Islamic worship from which the muezzin gives the call for prayer. (Jose'Pereira, 2004, The Sacred Architecture of Islam)

Light and Colour

Allah is the light of heavens and the earth, His light may be compared to a niche that enshrines a lamp, the lamp within a crystal of star like brilliance. Light was generally used to modify elements of decoration and to create new patterns. Though, colours were frequently used to depict various aspects of being, either unity by building white mosque or world of varied existence through elaborately coloured facades.

3.3.3 THE CHURCH

Christianity is a religion which traces its origin to Jesus of Nazareth, whom it affirms to be the chosen one (Christ) of God. The effect of Jesus Christ's life, the response to his teachings and the experience of his death and resurrection were the beginning of the Christian community. Christianity spread to Rome, and subsequently to east where it joined various mystic cult. Christians believe that the whole earth is full of mercy of the Lord, and as sun rises daily for man, so does the mystic sun of righteousness rises for all; He appeared for all, He suffered for all, and He rose again for all. The place of worship is called the church; it forms an important part in the Christian life.

Parts of the church:

1. Narthex (main entrance hall)

2. Aisles (side galleries)

Fig. 3.27 Parts of a Church (Source: Author)3. Nave - main path

4. Sanctuary - part consisting of the altar and the apse

Space

Christianity began as a simple religion requiring nothing more than some water, some food and a drink, as main acts of devotion. By 4th century, churches become the house of people, described as an inward looking basilica. Basilicas became the path characterized by continuity and directionality, with each element contributing to it, evoking an impression of expanding space, unifying and reinforcing it. Centre becomes prominent. Altar becomes prominent due to movement and visual effect. Every object constitutes a small gravitation force. (Fletcher, Sir Banister, Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture)

Form and Proportion

The association with height representing the journey upwards, movement towards the God, remained. This also permeates the visual world, everything leads up to the altar, Placed high above the level of the floor of the Church and approached by steps ; and the lofty arches aspire towards heaven, representing the highest aspiration of man to reach to God. This concept of arches was particularly prominent in gothic churches.

Iconography

The Church cross plan is an important symbol; it represents the Spirit and the matter in vertical and horizontal axes which intersect perpendicularly. The vertical axis which is attributed to the spirit is that golden thread which anchors the conscious to the physical body and along with man, during his evolutionary process, strives to ascend the peaks of Universal consciousness. The horizontal axis is attributed to matter and represents the level of awareness reached by an individual.

Light

However, the concept of Christian Ultimate Being was the supernal sun. The holy book Bible mentions this at several places, where Christ says, "I am the light of the world." Church architecture in itself celebrates this fact by incorporating various aspects associated with light. The concept of stained glass window was an extension of it. It is essentially transparent wall, through which heavenly light could pour into the heart of believer. The sun's course is represented in horizontal directions of church space. The orientation of church altar is towards the east, the side from where one ray of morning light strikes. (The New Encyclopedia Britannica, op.cit.)

CHAPTER 4: CASE STUDIES

Case studies are selected to understand the sacredness and the spiritual consciousness through the built, the purpose behind it. Case studies will throw some light on the spatial qualities of spiritual spaces. The three primary case studies which are covered in the research are:

ISKON TEMPLE, NEW DELHI

JAMA MASJID, NEW DELHI

CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF REDEMPTION, NEW DELHI

Phase 1:

Phase 1 would be visiting these institutional spaces and observing the special qualities and people interactions with the built environment. Collecting data and taking photos are the parallel work which is done with the observation.

Phase 2:

Phase 2 would be analysing the collected data of the case studies and taking out the inference from them.

In the earlier chapter we had developed a framework of looking at the case studies, in those parameters we shall understand them.

4.1 SRI SRI RADHA PARTHASARATHI MANDIR, ISKCON TEMPLE, NEW DELHI

Hare Krishna Movement

Founded in 1966 by His Divine Grace A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupado, the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) carries on in the modern world a great ancient tradition rooted in the Bhagvad-Gita, the teachings of Lord Krishna.(A+D, nov,1997)

It is believed that five hundred years ago Krishna descended as Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu to teach the most sublime and effective means of meditation for the present day; the chanting of the names of God (Japa), especially as found in the Hare Krishna mantra.

ISKCON believes in its purpose to:

Help all people discern reality from illusion, spirit from matter, the eternal from the temporary.

Expose the faults of materialism.

Offer guidance in the Vedic techniques of spiritual life.

Preserve and spread the Vedic culture.

An introduction to the Parthasarthy temple

The temple project, along with a Vedic cultural institution is located on a site measuring roughly three acres of land and is situated in the heart of East of Kailash, New Delhi.

1. The Temple

Dedicated to the service of Radha and Krishna, the temple is the centre of attraction for the entire complex.

4. The Ashrama

The centre is home for devotees fully dedicated to studying, living, and teaching the Vedic culture.

5. Krishna Jayanti Park

The Krishna Jayanti Park and other groves, waterfalls, ponds, and gardens is an integral part of the temple.

Architects approach

The architect, Mr. Achyut. P. Kanvinde, realizing the peculiarities of the site, allocated the highest spot of the site to the temple complex having an east-west orientation. A sunken landscape garden has been introduced around which all buildings have been grouped to create a unified cluster.(Back to Godhead, ISKCON Publication)

The design approach is aimed at synthesizing all activities and approach so that the functional needs are met while maintaining association with the historical past.

Although past historical details in the form of embellishment have not been adopted, efforts have been made to depict symbolic details of temple architecture wherever possible. These have been accentuated with red colour on white marble.

Form and Geometry

Fig 4.1 Site plan of the ISKCON temple, New Delhi (Source: A+D, The geometry and form of the temple is according to the vastusilpa, east-west orientation on the main shrine, whereas the entrance to the complex is from south. There are two axes of approaching the shrine, the east-west axis is less favoured by the public, so it's quite relatively less crowded. The height of the Shikhara from the road level is 98 m.

Space

Fig. 4.2 Sunken gardens on the way towards the main shrine (Source: Author)Steps, taking you to another level, each time you are surprised with the views before your eyes. Columned open courts which give a sense of enclosure. The main shrine hall has a dome which has a cut out in the top for natural light. One of the reasons for the positive vibration is the fusion of built and green spaces. The building emerges out of greens.

The central area is left open, symbolizing brahma-sthanam (place of creator), it is ideal for meditation and prayer as the sky is medium for sound.

The portal

The entrance is well identified and as you enter it constantly separates you from the outside. The portal or the entrance is articulated with two guards of the Vaikunth. Steps take you to the first level of instantly. One can feel solace, serenity, satisfaction and being lifted to a higher dimension of spirituality.

The path

Fig. 4.3 Entrance to the main prayer hall (Source: Author)

Fig. 4.4 View of the main shrine from west wing of the complex (Source: Author)As you enter the complex the first thing that catches your attention is the water fountain themed on Lord Krishna. Various courts and gardens punctuate the journey up to the final destination of lord Krishna. The experience is by movement through the layers of spaces responding to the question of how one reaches the final destination. This deviates the focus from the main shrine to the thresholds developed along the journey.

Destination

The main prayer hall of the temple comprise of the prime deities Radha and Krishna. The Krishna's idol here is made of black coloured stone. On one side of the main deity are the idols of Sri Sri Gaura Nitai along with Srila Prabhupada and his spiritual master Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati. And on the other side very beautiful deities in the form of Ram Parivaar are kept. The main prayer hall in front of the deities has a very peaceful energy and environment and the devotees sit for some time and soak themselves into the positive energy of the temple.

One door from the main prayer hall takes devotees towards a gallery which has beautiful and large portraits showing different leelas and life events of Lord Krishna.

Scale and Proportion

Fig. 4.5 Section of the ISKCON temple (Source: A+D, November, 1997)The scale is moderate, despite the fact that the temple rises on a sloppy land. The shikharas are the only which leave an impact, but it seems more of the articulation on them. The open spaces and disintegration of built into unbuilt has given spaces to someone be at different levels and at the same time near to the structure, this has taken the magnificence of the structure when viewed.

Iconography

Fig. 4.6 Shikharas of the main shrine (Source: Author)The Russian artist have great contribution towards decorating the walls of the temples. Paintings of lord Krishna and Radha, Sri ChaitanyaMahaprabhu etc. are all around the temple complex. Mount Meru, representing Loard Krishna, is symbolised in the temple by the main sikhara over the deities. The elegant sikharas have peacocks feather resembling horseshoe arches.

Lighting

The main shrine have geodesic dome with a cut out at the centre top. The main shrine is comparatively dark and subtle. But due to the presence of artificial light, the main prayer hall and the shrine becomes well lighted.

Colour

Fig.4.7 The main shrine (Source: Author)The articulation done on the exterior of the temple and on the shikhara are highlighted by using red sandstone. The interior spaces are decorated with paintings and wall murals.

Sound

Euphonic chants of the "Hare Krishna Hare Rama" is in the air purifying the soul. It is said that if you do the Japa the right way, your mind will get no chance to think of anything else. The Japa also controls your breath.

Touch

There is no iconography or carvings on the walls of the complex except the main shrine. The use of red and yellow sandstone gives a rough appearance. The floor is of various Indian marbles. The main shrine interior is all smooth and white giving a cleanliness look.

Smell

The fragrance of agarbatti and dhup fill the entire main shrine space with aroma.Aroma helps in reducing anxiety in individuals. An aroma can control how we perceive, feel and think about ourselves and the environment around us.

4.2 CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF REDEMPTION, NEW DELHI

An Introduction to Cathedral Church of Redemption, New Delhi

The Cathedral Church of Redemption at New Delhi, designed in Lutyens-Palladian sandstone by Henry Medd, Chief Architect to the Government of India, started life in 1931 looking like a huge Anglo-Saxon church, with a low humped silhouette like Romsey Abbey, but later had a dome added, and came to look more like a rather magnificent mausoleum, it owed something to Palladio's Church of the Redentore in Venice; hence, we are told, it's unlikely dedication.

Located in the north avenue, H.A.N. Medds semi-Palladian design has a Lutyenesque aura about it. Built in white Dholpur stone, it is sandwiched between a roof and plinth of red sandstone.

Form and geometry

The plan is similar to that of Palladio's great church in Venice. The ground plan is cruciform with two symmetrical axes.

Every church is oriented on its east axis. But this church lies on an important north south axis with the entry on the west and the altar to the east. 

The building has two consecutive domes. The drum sits over the central dome which then leads to another dome on top with lantern at the peak. The tower and the dome were added on later in 1938.

The most striking feature is the central high tower, to which the building rises in levels. In each side of the central tower is a pediment window.

Space and Proportion

Fig.4.8 Plan of the Church (Source: www. archnet.com)

Fig.4.9 The central Nave (Source: Author)The Church's solemn and austere exteriors lead to a magnificent interior, which has a wonderful play of arches. There is a tinted glass window that enhances the ethereal beauty of the church. The side of the catholic cathedral was the most satisfying, with broad and simple flat areas of wall. The horizontal bands, pediments and the dome clearly depicts borrowed classical revival (Florence Cathedral). The internal height and thick walls contribute to the cool temperature that is maintained inside. It has been so built that heat is kept off even when summer is in its prime and the place remains cool and calm as sunlight peeps into the church through small and recessed openings, placed strategically.

At the eastern end is the high altar with a half dome above it. On two sides of high altar are the Chapel of Ascension and the Children's Chapel.

The Portal, the Path and the Destination

Fig.4.10 Entrance to the Church (Source: Author)The Church's solemn and austere exteriors lead to a magnificent interior, which has a wonderful play of arches. The small and recessed openings let in streams of sunlight and strong surges of breeze. Entrance to the Church is from north, south, and western sides. At the eastern end is the high altar with a half dome above it. On two sides of high altar are the Chapel of Ascension and the Children's Chapel.

Iconography

Fig.4.11, 4.12, 4.13 Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, all the three orders are used in the elevation (Source: Author)

Decorations and carving reflect Indian architecture. The railing speak of the Indo-Sarsenic quality that the church has.

This is a typical Greek pediment which is being used to highlight doorways.

Light and Colour

Light and ventilation is insufficient in the building through the openings. The quality of light inside the Church is dim, especially when the doors are closed. The windows and light openings are placed high above ones reach. The small and recessed openings let in streams of sunlight and strong surges of breeze.

The material used in the interiors is white Dhoulpur sandstone, which with its red variety is used in many of the main buildings in Lutyens' Delhi. The high altar is of white marble with coloured inlay and the floor of the sanctuary is of various Indian marbles.

The entire interior is white stone except for the vaulted ceiling entrance to the Church is from north south and western sides.

Texture

Fig.4.14 Light from a coloured glass window (Source: Author)The structure built in stone which is left untreated and this continuous rough appearance is broken by the decoration of arched doorways and the few windows with smoothened stone.

Ashlar stone was used only at the four porches and at moulded courses, the rest of the building in plastered brick. The walls are made of brick masonry and stone. The floors are made of stone. The roof is coffered. The smooth and polished Ashlars were reserved for the moulded courses and the elegant columned porches.

Fig.4.15 Texture of the Dholpur stone on exterior wall (Source: Author)Sound

The choir gallery over the main western entrance has the unique William Hill and Norman and Beard pipe organ with Lady Willingdons help funds were raised to battle bad acoustics. In 1934, the vaulted ceiling and the dome were sprayed with asbestos mixed with adhesives and colouring matter to successfully lessen the 11-second reverberation

Although the Church does not have a long or interesting historical background, its presence on the major town planning axes of the Lutyen's Delhi makes it very important. The variety and mixture of classical western architecture composed with Indian materials and some Indian elements gives a very different feel to the Church.

4.3 JAMA MASJID, NEW DELHI

The Jama Masjid of Shahjahanabad is located inside the city a short distance from the Red Fort. Built by the emperor Shah Jahan, this mosque is one of the largest mosques in India. Its foundation was laid on 6 October 1650, and at the time of its construction, this mosque was the largest in the entire subcontinent. Steep, high stairs lead to the Jama Masjid and the prayer chamber is marked by multiple entrance arches.

Scale and Geometry

Fig.4.16 Plan of Jama Masjid (Source: www.archnet.com)Jami Masjid, 500 m from Lal Quila, built by Shahjahan, is the largest mosque in India. It stands on a rise with a huge flight of stairs from 3 sides. This inspiring structure can be seen from a great distance. The two minarets are more than 39 m high. There is a fountain in the 900 sq m courtyard. It is eleven spans wide, while its length is barely two spans.Three bulbous marble domes crown the mosque and towering minarets flank the south and northeast ends.

Form and Proportion

Fig.4.17 Front elevation of Jama Masjid (Source: www.archnet.com)Jama Masjid is situated on top of a rocky ridge, rendering it visible from a great distance. It is massive in size, locating the mosque on elevated ground, effectively utilizing the opportunity afforded by this imposing site feature, which overrode any overwhelming preoccupation with symmetry. The Jama Masjid is visually and physically accessible to the public.

Space

Fig.4.18 Tank (Source: Author)Generating enormous crowds of its own, the Jama Masjid, separated from the courts located in the Red Fort, and is significant because the plaza of the mosque, the bazaar, and the royal forecourts were distinctly separated. This division is intentional breakup of spaces intended for public versus private use. The intention was to make the mosque to be a place opens to everyone, and while Emperor performed his prayers here, others did as well. There is an arcade all around the prayer room which was originally a continuation of the prayer room, but has now been sealed off as an independent structure. The pillars then possibly serve as a reference to the emperor, proclaimed in the mosque's inscription as the "strengthener of the pillars of state... and the promulgator of faith.

The prayer room to the west of the courtyard, facing Mecca, is a combination of red sandstone and marble and has three domes crowning it.

Fig.4.19 Aisle (Source: Author)

The Portal, The Path And The Destination

Fig.4.20 The nave (Source: Author)Red sandstone gates access the courtyard from the centers of the north, south, and east sides and lead down to the city via three-sided stairways. The gateways and the steps are finished in red sandstone; the steps have white markings on the risers to indicate positions during prayers. The most prominent feature is that the steps are measuring three stories in height. Accessible balconies protected by low stone parapets. The floor of the courtyard is paved with red sandstone, interrupted by white marble strips which mark prayer positions for worshippers.

Fig.4.21 view of the dome from one of the Minaret (Source: Author)An ablution tank surrounded by a raised three-meter-wide white marble platform, is located in the centre of the courtyard. An intricately embossed marble fountain is located in its centre, and marble lampposts three meters in height mark its corners.

Touch

Fig.4.22 Jali in the Aisle (Source: Author)Jama Masjid is built primarily of red sandstone and is topped with white and black marble domes with the topmost parts covered in gold. This use of expensive building materials on the highest points of the structure, symbolize a dedication to the Islamic faith and project a sense of power that is held by the religion. The marble surfaces of Jama Masjid are considerably more austere than any other Mughal buildings, suggesting a division between secular and sacred arts. Structures are intended for public use and so used less expensive building materials and were simpler in ornamentation.

Light

The incredible play of light and shadow through the screens (jalis) of the mosque, let the eyes to halt for a while. The different patterns of the Arabic jalis also provide shelter from heat.

Colour

Fig.4.23 View of the Courtyard (Source: Author)The Friday Mosque of old Delhi is clad completely in red sandstone, with white marble employed in the domes, ceilings, and floor of the prayer hall. Black marble inlays further embellish this material palette; for example, the geometry of the domes is exaggerated by inlays running from base to apex. In similar fashion, the minarets are decorated with vertical white marble inlays. The floor of the prayer hall is paved with white marble with a prayer-mat inlay pattern.

Iconography

The edifices are beautifully done with calligraphy of versus of Quran. The cabinet in the north gate of the Jama Masjid contains a collection of Muhammad's relics - the Koran written on deerskin, a red beard-hair of the prophet, his sandals and his footprints, implanted in a marble block. The interior surfaces of the prayer hall are decorated with fine inlay work and Arabic inscriptions, as is the east elevation of the mosque.

Today, the Friday mosque of old Delhi continues to carry out its congregational function, while the grand imperial gesture that it embodied serves as a reminder of the city's history.The primarily use of red sandstone in the construction of Jama Masjid, and the extensive use of white marble reflects the versatility in the use of building materials, techniques including the use of marble and decorative inlays provide a monumental feeling about the permanence of the architecture.

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS

5.1 DESIGN ATTRIBUTES IN SPIRITUAL SPACES

All the information collected so far is analysed thoroughly. An analysis of experiencing the sacred buildings to get the design tools that an architect can employ to create the desired spiritual experience.

Geometry and proportion

Man is a measure of everything be it social, physical or Spiritual. Architecture is a derivative of this measure. Human body is a module for various proportioning systems, such as modular man, golden mean. Man is also a prime measure of scale. Alteration of scale with respect to the human scale generates different kinds of spaces and different kinds of feelings and experiences. In both the cases the monumental scale is secured to create an atmosphere of awe, mystery and magnificence. Historically, one finds man is depicted in numerous of ways. The plan of the temple represents the vastupurusa mandala, where the cosmic man or Brahma is placed at the center. The womb or the garbhagriha generates all positive energies. The superstructure also represents the architectonic man and bears the proportions of the human body.

Depicting Nature

Most of the ideas and concepts are derived from nature. With his observation and creativity, man has developed several things from natural forms and materials. The temples of the Hindu, minarets of the mosque and Christian's traditions to relate their place of worships to the Holy Mountains is one such attempt to imitate nature's forms

Orientation

The sun is a prime generator of any structure. The cardinal directions are based on the movements of sun. In Hinduism it is good to see the first rays of the sun, so the entry of temple faces east. Same concept holds good for the church, since the altar is in the apse so the orientation is so adjusted that the sun rays first and foremost penetrate through the apsidal openings, thus the main entry faces the west and the apse faces the east. The mosque has three entries but the main entry faces opposite to the mihrab which is directed towards Mecca

Image of the Universe

The building represents the universe, the cosmos. In the Hindu temple the temple is a miniature cosmos where each and every constituent represents a part of the cosmos.

The Ka'ba in Muslim thought is a cosmic entity. It corresponds to the Pole star. The circum-ambulation of Ka'ba is reflected as the image of