The History Of The Intertestamental Period Theology Religion Essay

Published Date: 23 Mar 2015

When we enter the world of the New Testament, we see a world that is much different than the world of the Old Testament. In the New Testament, we discover groups and concepts that were not present in the Old Testament cultural context. This chapter is designed to familiarize you with some of the groups and concepts that are present in the New Testament, but not necessarily present in the Old Testament. We will explore where these groups and their ideologies come from.

The Intertestamental Period is the time between the testaments. This period covers the time between the last Old Testament prophet and John the baptizing one. This period is rich with history that helps us to understand the emergence of the religious sects, synagogues, and the Kingdom of God. The background of the New Testament is very fundamental to understanding the New Testament. The term "Intertestamental" designates the period of time, approximately 400 years, between the Old Testament and the New Testament. This period significantly molded the land of Palestine. Because of the emergence of the new institutions, groups, and world powers that shaped the direction, character, and contour of 1st century Palestine, the era must be broadened to encompass the Babylonian, Persian, and Grecian periods.

Every serious New Testament student must get a grasp of this period to really understand the context of the ministry of Jesus and the disciples. It is critical to study this period for the following reasons:

New Developments

Emergence of Judaism - instituted upon the Jews' return from exile (Ezra the father of Judaism. Strong movement that causes the Jews to become zealous for the law as a result of understanding that their exilic experiences were due to them abandoning the law of God. Ezra led this movement after the Babylonian exiles returned to their homeland. The emphases of Judaism under the leadership of Ezra:

The Torah

Hope in Messianic Deliverance

Electedness and destiny of Israel

Bodily Resurrection

Absolute Monotheism

The sacredness of the land of Israel

The Holy Land had become the Roman Province - part of the Persian satrapy at the close of the Old Testament

Change of language: The common Jew no longer spoke Hebrew, but Aramaic and Greek. This was a result of Hellenization and the exiles.

Change of geography: Samaria, Judea, Perea were created by the Roman Governor Gabinius in 57 BC.

Demographic change - from sparse to dense population

Evolution of religious parties - Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes

Development of organizations - Sanhedrin (gerousia), synagogues

Doctrinal development: systematic development of the concepts of angels and demons, world empires, apocalyptism, immortality resurrection, and retribution.

Religious reform: Jewish exclusivism and legalism

Source of information: We gained access to this information through the following sources:

Archaeology

Secular historians

Josephus - Jewish historian (37 - 1000 AD) the Jewish wars, antiquities against Apion

The Dead Sea Scrolls (1947)

Apocrypha-Materials in Latin Vulgate but not in Hebrew bible (Tanak)

The Bible

History of the Intertestamental Period

Let's examine the historical events that have great significance to the foundation of the New Testament context and culture. Some of the most significant historical events that helped to shape the New Testament context and culture were:

The Babylonian Period (587 - 538 BC) - This is the period in which the Southern Kingdom was exiled. A brief description is provided to assist you in following the timeline of events. Babylon is modern day Iraq.

Political conditions:

722 BC - Israel (10 Northern tribes, called Israel of Ephraim) taken captive by Assyria

605 BC - Assyria and Egypt fell to Babylon at the battle of Carchemish under Nabopolassar. Nebuchadnezzar, his son, captured Jerusalem, Daniel, and other stalwarts and deported them to Babylon (598 BC).

598 BC - King Jehoiachim, Ezekiel, and many progressive Jews taken to Babylon.

586 BC (August 15) - Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem and Temple. Jeremiah taken to Egypt, and thousands of Jews to Babylon, where they exchanged agricultural practices for commercial lifestyle.

582 BC - Final deportation or the last group of the Israelites to be taken to Babylon.

562 BC - Nebuchadnezzar died, succeeded by Evil-Merodach. Replaced by brother-in-law Neriglissar. Nabonidus ruled 556-539; replaced by his son, Belshazzar.

Three reasons for Babylonian captivity:

Idolatry

Social interaction with the pagans; mingling led them to pagan practices and behavior. Their values and their vision were contaminated and corrupted.

They forsook the Law of Moses; they no longer conducted their lives according to the divine prescription given by Moses.

The destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple majorly shaped the world of the New Testament. Jewish life surrounded Jerusalem and the Temple and upon its destruction, it devastated the identity of God's people. It is said that Israel went into exile defined as a covenant community and return a church. Thus, God uses the history of Israel to reveal the truths of the New Testament.

Religious conditions

Babylonians were polytheists (their chief god was Marduk). They were star-gazers, sorcerers, astrologists, and soothsayers. Though the Babylonians were highly pagan, the Jewish faith remained untainted.

Jews experienced marked degrees of religious liberty (life was kind of good for the Jews, that's the reason that after exile, many did not return home)

Jewish idolatry destroyed

New emphasis for a reverence of the law

New importance attached to circumcision

Acceleration of Jewish exclusivism

Creation of the synagogue - minyan (the 10 men rule); this rule suggests that their had to be 10 men present in order for a gathering to be considered official.

Intense scribal activity

Other developments:

Aramaic became new mode of communication for the Jews

Jews changed from agricultural to commercial people

The next significant period of time that helped to shape the context of the New Testament was the Persian Empire.

The Persian Period (538 - 333 BC). Persia is modern day Iran.

Political conditions

538 BC - Babylon fell to Cyrus the Great of Persia

535 BC - Zerubbabel led 50,000 Jews back to Palestine; the Jewish people were now granted permission to return to their homeland. They began to work on the restoration of the temple.

516 BC - Jewish Temple completed

458 BC - Ezra led second batch of Jews back to Palestine and began social and religious reform. Ezra began teaching the people the necessity of returning to the Law of Moses as a way of life.

445 BC - Nehemiah led third batch to Palestine and began rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem.

The Jews felt out of place in exile because of the non-existence of the temple, because Jewish life centered around the temple. When they celebrated harvest time, their commandment was to bring a tenth to the temple. Even those who did not return from their exilic land sent temple dues to help rebuild it.

The highlights of the Intertestamental Period centered around exile and Hellenization, and Hellenization centered around the efforts and actions of Alexander the Great, the next significant period of time that affected the Jews. Alexander the Great, the king of Macedon in northern ancient Greece, entered the temple in Jerusalem and sieged it. He was a military genius who he died at the age of 32; in 12 years, he almost conquered the world - conquering the Persian Empire, and extending the Greek empire as far east as India and south as Egypt. Alexander allowed the Jews to move about to practice their religion.

The Classical Hellenic and Hellenistic Period (333 - 30 BC).

Political conditions

356 BC - Alexander the Great was born to Philip of Macedon

333 BC - Darius III, King of Persia, defeated at the battle of Issus (Syria)

323 BC (June 10) - Alexander the Great dies

323-322 BC - Revolt in Greece (Lamian War)

322-301 BC - Wars of the Diadochi

First War of the Diadochi, 322-320 BC

Second War of the Diadochi, 319-315 BC

Third War of the Diadochi, 314-311 BC

Fourth War of the Diadochi, 308-301 BC

The Struggle over Macedon, 298-285 BC

The Struggle of Lysimachus and Seleucus, 285-281 BC

The Gallic Invasions and Consolidation, 280-275

Cultural conditions

What is hellenism? Hellenism is from the word hellén, the native word for a Greek; thus, Hellenism means "the system of Greek culture, Greek way of life." This Greek culture focused upon on individuals and the mind. Several philosophical views were shaped and developed during the period of Hellenism such as: humanism, which centered around intellectualism (the goal of the mind is to know one's self), which led to a decreasing of gods; naturalism, which is the idea that in the universe, we have a plan for ourselves (world soul); and stoicism, there is no need for the supernatural.

Stoicism was one of the new philosophical movements of the Hellenistic period. The name derives from "the porch" (stoa poikilê) in the Agora at Athens, decorated with mural paintings, where the members of the school congregated, and their lectures were held. The Stoics did, in fact, hold that emotions like fear or envy (or impassioned sexual attachments, or passionate love of anything whatsoever) either were, or arose from false judgments. They contended that the sage - a person who had attained moral and intellectual perfection - would not experience those emotions. The later Stoics of Roman Imperial times, Seneca and Epictetus, emphasized the doctrines (already central to the early Stoics' teachings) that the sage is "utterly immune to misfortune and that virtue is sufficient for happiness." Our phrase 'stoic calm' simply encapsulates these claims.

The connotations that derive from the use of the word "stoic" do not, however, hint at the even more radical ethical views which the Stoics defended, e.g. that only the sage is free while all others are slaves, or that all those who are morally vicious are equally so. Stoic ethics, no matter how nonsensical or attainable, achieves a certain plausibility within the context of their physical theory and psychology, and within the framework of Greek ethical theory that was handed down to them from Plato and Aristotle. They were aware of the mutually interdependent nature of their philosophical views. The Stoics views in logic and physics are no less distinctive and interesting than those in ethics itself. (find the Source for me)

Alexander the Great's accomplishments:

Gave Jews civil liberty

Instituted Koine Greek as world language

Promulgated Greek culture (Hellenization) - Hellenism emphasized the following:

Individualism

Intellectualism

Humanism

Naturalism

Elevation of beauty

Cosmopolitanized the world; Alexander the Great wanted to make the world one large city

Indelibly etched his name in the annals of military history

Founded Alexandrian library with over ½ million volumes (before the printing press and copiers). The Alexandrian library was one of the world's largest and comprehensive libraries; it was destroyed by fire, and it is thought that this fire set society and civilization back a few centuries.

When Alexander the Great died (June 10, 323 BC), he left behind a huge empire, which was composed of many independent territories. Alexander's empire stretched from his homeland of Macedon itself, with the Greek city-states that his father had subdued, to Bactria (modern day Afghanistan) and some parts of Asia in the east, including parts of India; Anatolia (modern day Turkey); the Levant (modern day Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, State of Palestine, Israel, Cyprus, and some parts of Turkey); the Sinai Peninsula; Egypt; Babylonia (Iraq); and Persia (Iran).

Upon Alexander's death, there was almost immediately a dispute among his generals as to who his successor should be. Meleager and the infantry supported the candidacy of Alexander's half-brother, Arrhidaeus, while Perdiccas, the leading cavalry commander, supported waiting until the birth of Alexander's unborn child by Roxana. A compromise was arranged - Arrhidaeus (as Philip III) would become King rule jointly with Roxana's child, assuming that it was a boy (as it was, becoming Alexander IV). Perdiccas himself would become Regent of the entire Empire and Meleager his lieutenant. Soon, however, Perdiccas had Meleager and the other infantry leaders murdered and assumed full control.

The other cavalry generals, who had supported Perdiccas, were rewarded by becoming satraps of the various parts of the Empire. Alexander's successors were called Diadochi. Diadochi, the plural of Diadochus, is the common Latin form of the Greek Διάδοχοι, transcripted Diadochoi, which in general means "successors." [1] Ptolemy received Egypt; Laomedon received Syria and Phoenicia; Philotas took Cilicia; Peithon took Media; Antigonus received Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia; Asander received Caria; Menander received Lydia; Lysimachus received Thrace; Leonnatus received Hellespontine Phrygia; and Neoptolemus had Armenia. Macedon and Greece were to be under the joint rule of Antipater, who had governed them for Alexander, and Craterus, Alexander's most able lieutenant, while Alexander's old secretary, Eumenes of Cardia, was to receive Cappadocia and Paphlagonia.

In the east, Perdiccas left Alexander's arrangements intact - Taxiles and Porus ruled over their Kingdoms in India; Alexander's father-in-law Oxyartes ruled Gandara; Sibyrtius ruled Arachosia and Gedrosia; Stasanor ruled Aria and Drangiana; Philip ruled Bactria and Sogdiana; Phrataphernes ruled Parthia and Hyrcania; Peucestas governed Persis; Tlepolemus had charge over Carmania; Atropates governed northern Media; Archon got Babylonia; and Arcesilas ruled northern Mesopotamia.

Specifically, in hellenistic history, the wars of the Diadochi followed Alexander's death. This was the beginning of the Hellenistic period of Greek history, the time when many people who were not Greek themselves adopted Greek philosophy and styles, Greek city life, and aspects of Greek religion.

The kingdoms of Antigonus, Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus and Cassander.

The Kingdoms of Antigonus, Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Cassander

After four wars and almost 50 years after Alexander's death, some sort of order was restored when the Gauls defeated the Greeks. Ptolemy ruled over Egypt, southern Syria (known as Coele-Syria), and various territories on the southern coast of Asia Minor. Antiochus ruled the vast Asian territories of the Empire, while Macedon and Greece (with the exception of the Aetolian League), fell to Antigonus.

Ptolemies and Seleucids were the two most important people for the Jewish movement. For a hundred years after the death of Alexander, a struggles ensued as to which of the two powers was to govern Palestine, until in the year 223 came the northern prince under whom Palestine was destined to fall to the Seleucids for good.

The Jews were under the Ptolemies (Egypt) from 320 - 198 BC:

320 BC - Ptolemy I (Soter) controlled Judah

250 BC - Ptolemy II (Philadelphus 285-247)

Ptolemy ordered translation of Septuagint (LXX)

203 BC - Antiochus III captured Jerusalem

Letter of Aristeas: the story of Septuagint where 70 men came up with same exact translations.

The Jews were under the Seleucids (Syria) from 198-167 BC:

175-164 BC - Antiochus IV Epiphanies: brilliant, bright, also known as "mad dog"; killed a pig on the altar. He thought that he was a manifestation of Zeus. He had three aims:

Unite and Hellenize his empire

Wipe out Palestinian Judaism

Have complete mastery of Jewish destiny

The Antigonid Kingdom finally fell to Rome, and the Seleucids were taken from Persia by the Parthians. The Seleucid Kingdom limped on in Syria until finally defeated by Pompey (Romans) in 64 BC. The Ptolemies lasted longer in Alexandria: Egypt finally fell to Rome in 30 BC.

The Maccabean Period (167-63 BC)

A very famous period of time was the Maccabean Period. The Maccabees were Jewish rebels who fought against Antiochus IV Epiphanies of the Hellenistic Seleucid Dynasty in defense of Jewish rights and customs. Maccabees founded the Hasmonean royal dynasty and established Jewish independence from the Seleucids.

Makhbi, which means "extinguisher" (of persecution); from kabhah, "to be extinguished." Some believe Maccabees is derived from maqqabhay, or "hammerer" [2] 

Hasmoneus - grandfather of Mattathias

Hasmoneans - sons and descendants of Hasmoneus: Mattathias, John, Judas (or Judah Maccabee), Jonathan, Eleazer, Simon.

Mattathias, a Jewish priest, was told to sacrifice and worship Zeus on an altar in the Temple by Antiochus IV. He refused, killed a Hellenistic Jew who started to worship the idol, and then fled to the wilderness. They organized guerella warfare, and because Antiochus IV was engaged in other wars, he could not focus upon them, so they signed a peace treaty. The Jewish revolt against the Seleucids was successful in 165 BC. In triumph, the Maccabees entered Jerusalem, cleansed the Temple, and reestablished traditional worship there.

Hasideans (chasidim) loyal and conservative Jews

165 BC - Jewish religious freedom

142 BC - Jewish political freedom - Demetrius II Nicator, the Seleucid king, exempted the Maccabees from tribute (wealth given to another nation as a sign of submission)

135-106 BC - Formal appearance of religious parties: Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, Judaism

Due to the peace treaty, every year the Jews celebrate Hanukkah or the Festival of Rededication or Lights. Hanukkah is mentioned in John 10:22-25. Also called the Feast of the Maccabees and Feast of Lights (Josephus and Talmudic writings), mentioned in the Old Testament (1 Maccabees 4:56). It was instituted by Judas Maccabeus (164 BC) to be celebrated yearly from the 25th day of Kislev to the second or third day of Tevet (Kislev can have 29 or 30 days), in commemoration of the purification of the temple of Jerusalem which had been polluted by Antiochus Epiphanes on that day three years previously (1 Maccabees 4:41-64; 2 Maccabees 6:2). Unlike the great Hebrew annual feasts, it could be celebrated not only in the temple at Jerusalem, but also in the synagogues of all places. It was observed with manifestations of joy such as accompanied the Feast of Tabernacles, during the celebration of which the dedication of the first temple had taken place.

During the celebration of the feast, mourning and fasting were not allowed to begin. The Jews assembled in the temple and synagogues bearing branches of trees and palms and singing psalms; the Hallel (Psalms 113-118) is sung every day. The joyful character of the feast was also manifested by illuminations, which may have been suggested by the "lighting of the lamps of the candlestick" when the temple service was first restored (1 Maccabees 4:50-51). However, Feast of Lights may have been derived, according to very early Midrashim, from the miraculous burning throughout the first celebration of the feast of a vial of oil found in the temple. Since the 1st century, a general illumination of Hebrew houses has been customary, every house having at least one light, and some, according to the school of the rabbis, having one light for each person in the house on the first night and twice the number on each succeeding night. Modern Hebrews keep the feast on 12 December, with strictness, but do not forbid servile work. At the daily morning prayer, a different portion of Numbers 7 is read in the synagogue.

The Period of the Second Jewish Temple (515 BC - 70 AD)

Judaism refers to the religion and culture of the Jewish people from the beginning of the post-exilic period (538 BC) to modern times. The term "Judaism" is derived from "Judah," the name of the southern Kingdom of ancient Israel, while "Jew" is a shortened form of "Judeans."

The life of the Jewish people revolved around the Temple in Jerusalem, which was finally built under the reign of Solomon. However, the united Kingdom of Israel under Saul, David, and Solomon came to an end shortly after the death of Solomon. Rehoboam, his son, provoked a revolt about 930 BC on the part of the 10 northern tribes by levying unreasonably high taxes (1 Kings 12). From that time on, the Kingdoms of Israel (or Samaria, the northern Kingdom) and Judah (the southern Kingdom) maintained a separate existence. The northern Kingdom fell to the Assyrians in 722 BC, and thousands of captives, primarily members of the upper class, were forcibly exiled and taken to Assyria, where they presumably intermarried with the native population and disappeared from history.

The Kingdom of Judah survived as an independent state until 597 BC, when it came under the control of the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar. The temple was destroyed in 586 BC, and many captives were carried off to Babylonia, beginning a period of exile that would last two generations. The Babylonian conquest of Judea and the destruction of the Solomonic temple produced dramatic social and religious changes in Jewish life. The cessation of the temple cult struck a serious blow at the heart of the Israelite religion, since the Jerusalem temple alone was the legitimate and divinely appointed place for discharging much of the ritual requirement of the Mosaic Law, chiefly the sacrificial cult. Even the three annual pilgrimage festivals, Succoth (Tabernacles), Pesach (Passover), and Shavuoth (Weeks) could no longer be observed by pious Jews who had remained in Judea after 586 BC. When after 538 BC many exiles chose to return to Judea, many others elected to remain in their new homeland.

The Babylonians were defeated by Cyrus the Persian in 539 BC, and the following year, the king issued a decree permitting all captive peoples to return to the lands of their origin (2 Chronicles 36:22-23, Ezra 1). At least four waves of Jewish expatriates returned from Mesopotamia to Judea during the century following the decree of Cyrus, under such leaders as Sheshbazzar, Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Many Jews, however, chose to remain in their adopted Mesopotamian homeland.

The dedication of the second Temple in the spring of 515 BC provided a formal end to the exilic period. Rebuilding the Temple lasted approximately 70 years (Jeremiah 29:10), and was a direct result of the prophetic exhortations of Haggai and Zechariah. Unfortunately, the temple cult, even when reinstituted in 516 BC, no longer played a significant role in their religious lives. The decline in the usage of the Temple does not mean that religious practices ended; during the exile, Jews just began to use the synagogue as the preferred place of worship.

In Judea (Palestine), Jewish governors, who held office at the pleasure of the Persian king, ruled the Jewish people. One of the earlier governors was Zerubabbel (Haggai 1:1; 2:1-2), a descendant of David (1 Chronicles 3:10-19). In some way, he shared rule with the high priest Jeshua ben Jehozadak. Palestine was part of one of the 20 satrapies of the Persian Empire, which lasted from 539 to 331 BC, when it fell to the Greeks under Alexander the Great. Little is known about the historical developments in Palestine during most of the Persian period.

When Alexander died in 323 BC, his empire was divided up among his generals; Egypt and Palestine fell to Ptolemy I. The Ptolemies were benevolent despots who allowed the Jews of Palestine a measure of freedom and autonomy. They could still travel to the Temple for worship and sacrifice. After the battle of Paneion in 198 bc, Palestine came under the rule of the Seleucid Empire, founded by Seleucus I, another of Alexander's generals.

The Seleucid Empire embraced a very large area with a diverse population, extending from Asia Minor and Palestine in the west to the borders of India on the east. Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) ascended the Seleucid throne in 175 BC and attempted to unify his vast empire by Hellenizing it (i.e., forcing the adoption of Greek language and culture). Local cultures and religions were forcibly suppressed as a result of this policy, and the Jewish state in Palestine was perhaps the hardest hit of all. In 167 BC, Antiochus IV dedicated the Temple in Jerusalem to Olympian Zeus, sacrificed a sow on the altar, destroyed scrolls containing the Jewish Scriptures, and forbade the rite of circumcision. This repression triggered a revolt led by an aged priest named Mattathias and his sons. The Seleucids were repulsed, and finally in 164 BC, the temple was retaken by Mattathias's son Judas the Maccabee (an epithet meaning "the hammer"). This Jewish victory has been commemorated annually by the festival of Hanukkah ("dedication"). Judas and his brothers, called Maccabees or Hasmoneans (Mattathias was of the house of Hasmon), and their descendants ruled Judea from 164 to 63 BC, when Palestine fell to the Roman general Pompey. Thereafter, Palestine held land In the Roman Empire, and received protection in return for homage and allegiance to Rome.

Hyrcanus, a Hasmonean, was high priest after the conquest of Judea by the Romans, though Antipater (an Idumean) was the real power behind Hyrcanus. The sons of Antipater, Phasael and Herod, were governors of Jerusalem and Galilee, respectively. Upon the assassination of Antipater in 43 BC, and through his connections in Rome, Herod (later called Herod the Great) was named king of Judea by the Roman senate; he reigned from 37 to 4 BC.

When he died, Palestine was divided up by the emperor Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) and placed under the governorship of three of Herod's sons:

Herod Archelaus (ethnarch of Judea, Idumea, and Samaria from 4 BC to 6 AD)

Herod Antipas (tetrarch of Galilee and Perea from 4 BC to 39 AD)

Herod Philip (tetrarch of Batanea, Trachonitis, and other small states from 4 BC to 34 AD).

These territories were generally placed under Roman procurators after the sons of Herod had died or been deposed. For a brief period (41-44 AD), Herod Agrippa I, the grandson of Herod the Great, ruled virtually the same territory as his grandfather. Upon his death (narrated in Acts 12:20-23), his territories were placed under Roman procurators.

The greed and ineptitude of these procurators provoked the Jewish populace to rebel. The unsuccessful Jewish revolt of 66-73 AD resulted in the destruction of the second temple by the 10th Roman legion under Titus in 70 AD. The revolt was completely quelled in 73 AD, when more than 900 Jews under siege in the desert fortress of Masada near the Dead Sea committed mass suicide, rather than fall into Roman hands. These tragic events permanently ended the temple and the priestly system in Judaism.

Social and Religious Developments [3] 

During the exilic and early post-exilic period, the peculiar Jewish institution of the synagogue (a Greek word meaning "gathering place") began to evolve. The synagogue became such a popular and useful institution for Jewish communities outside Palestine that in the centuries after the dedication of the second Temple, they sprang up throughout Palestine - many in Jerusalem itself. By the end of the second Temple period, the synagogue had come to play three important functions in Jewish life: it served as a house of prayer, a house of study, and a place of assembly.

First century synagogue worship is illustrated in Luke 4:16-30 and Acts 13:13-42. The service focused on a reading of a selection from the Torah (Law of Moses), then one from the Haphtorah (Prophets). These readings were followed by a homily based on scripture. Other elements in 1st century AD synagogue worship included the recitation of the Shema ("Hear, O Israel"), a combination of biblical passages including Deuteronomy 6:4-9; 11:13-21 and Numbers 15:37-41, and the Shemoneh Esreh (18 Benedictions) called the Amidah ("standing"), because it was recited while standing upright. Jews also wore fringes on their garments in obedience to Numbers 15:38-39 (Matthew 23:5), and phylacteries on their foreheads and left arms. Phylacteries are little boxes containing the portions of scripture recited in Shema; they were used in literal fulfillment of the command in Deuteronomy 6:8. Archaeologists have discovered 1st century phylacteries in the ruins of Masada.

Outside of Palestine, Mesopotamia (the name for the area of the Tigris-Euphrates river system, corresponding to modern-day Iraq and to a lesser extent northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and smaller parts of southwestern Iran) became the second most important center of Judaism. The Babylonian Jewish community was known as the Golah ("captivity"), and its titular head was called the Resh Galuta or Exilarch (both terms mean "leader of the captivity"). By the end of the exilic period, the descendants of the ancient original captives had forgotten Hebrew and had adopted Aramaic, the international language of the ancient Near East and sister language to Hebrew, as their first language. Even in Palestine, Aramaic was the primary language spoken. Thus, when portions of scripture were read in synagogue services in Hebrew, most of those present were unable to understand what was read. This problem was solved by providing a methurgeman (translator) who would orally translate short sections of scripture. Eventually these targums ("translations") were reduced to writing, beginning in the second century AD.

By the 1st century AD, it had been estimated that there were from "four to seven million Jews in the Greco-Roman world, perhaps three to four times the population of Palestine. Jews, in lands outside of Palestine, came to be known collectively as the Diaspora ("scattering"). After the Greeks dominated the Mediterranean world through Alexander and his successors, Greek became the common language throughout this region. Just as Mesopotamian Jews spoke Aramaic in place of Hebrew, so Jews in the Greco-Roman world came to speak Greek. By the middle of the 3rd century BC, Hellenistic Jews began to translate the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek." [4] This translation, called the Septuagint (a term meaning "seventy," based on a legend that it was translated simultaneously by 70 Jewish scholars), contained a more extensive canon of scripture than that recognized by Palestinian Judaism. This reflects the fact that Hellenistic Jews held more liberal attitudes that the Palestinian Jews.

Jewish Sects

During the 2nd century BC, most of the major sects within Palestinian Judaism came into being, including the Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, Zealots, and others.

Sadducees

The Sadducees were perhaps connected with Zadok, a high priest appointed by David. Zadok's descendants were regarded as the only legitimate priestly line; they were devoted above the Levites in Ezekiel 40-48. Zadok (derived from the Hebrew word Saddiq) was a priest in Solomon's temple (1 Kings 2:35). The Sadducees were a wealthy, aristocratic class that monopolized the high priesthood. They did not believe in angels, spirits, life after death, or the resurrection (Acts 23:8), nor did they accept the validity of the oral law as developed by the Pharisees. They left no writings and disappeared with the destruction of the temple in 70 AD." [5] The Zadokite priesthood dynasty terminated under Antiochus IV (Epiphanes, known as mad dog).

Characteristics

Aristocratic party that ruled the Temple and Sanhedrin

Greatly influenced by Greek secular spirit

Intensely political and severe in judicial judgment

Suspicious of each other and were known for no group loyalty.

Had a low view of God and religion

Beliefs

Rejected doctrine of resurrection and immortality

Denied the existence of angels and spirits

Accepted only the Pentateuch as scripture (dismissed oral traditions)

Humanism, which gave God little place in human affairs and historical events

Disappeared as a party after 70 AD

Pharisees

The Hasidim were members of a religious association that helped the Hasmoneans in the revolt against the Seleucids (1 Maccabees 2:42; 7:13), but later opposed them when they claimed rights to the priesthood. Both the Pharisees and Essenes may have their origin in this religious sect. Unlike the upper class Sadducees, Pharisees were middle class. "The Pharisees ("separated ones") first appear in sources toward the end of the 2nd century BC and were involved primarily in political affairs. Pharisees derived their name from both an Aramaic and Hebrew word, Hasidim, which also means, "pious ones." They represented the common people against the tyrannical Hasmonean ruler Alexander Janneus (103-76 BC), who had hundreds of Pharisees executed in reprisal. [6] 

By the 1st century ad, the Pharisees were primarily concerned with religious matters and noted for the meticulous observance of the Mosaic Law as traditionally interpreted. For reasons of ritual purity, they separated themselves from other Jews who were not as scrupulous and who might contaminate them. Pharisees operated in groups called Haberim ("associates") in which they were insulated from those who were lax religiously. Zealous to faithfully fulfill the Mosaic Law, the Pharisees developed an oral law that served to help them obey Torah. This oral law was an interpretation and expansion of the 613 commands in the Mosaic Law; it was finally compiled and reduced to written form as the Mishnah ("teaching") in the late 2nd century AD. "Paul (Acts 22:3; 23:6; 26:5; Philippians 3:5) and many other early Christians were converts from Pharisaism (Acts 15:5). Pharisaic Judaism survived the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD to form the rabbinic Judaism that dominated Jewish religious life from the 2nd century AD to modern times." [7] 

Josephus, the Jewish historian, suggests that were about 6000 Pharisees in Jerusalem. There were two different schools within the ranks of the Pharisees, which were:

The school of Hillel, which was the liberal branch of the order of the Pharisees (this is the school that Gameliel and Saul studied)

The other school was Shammai, which was the conservative school.

HILLEL

Hillel, Jewish teacher and scholar (60 BC - 20 AD) was the father of Abdon, one of the judges (Judges 12:13-15). Hillel helped develop the oral law and may have founded rabbinic Judaism. Hillel was called "the Elder," a title that indicates a person holding a position of honor, generally given to those who stood at the head of the community. Born in Babylonia, he moved to Palestine for more advanced studies under two outstanding scholars, Shemaiah and Abtalyon. He first gained recognition when the sons of Bathyra, the chief interpreters of the law at the time, could not decide on an answer to an important legal problem, namely, whether or not the offering of the paschal lamb overrode the Sabbath prohibitions. Hearing that there was a man living in Jerusalem who had studied under Shemaiah and Abtalyon, they sent for Hillel and told him the problem. Hillel's answer was that the paschal offering took precedence over the Sabbath, and he argued his point so successfully that his ruling was accepted. He was then appointed to replace the sons of Bathyra. Hillel was one of the first persons to apply advanced principles of interpretation in determining practical law and action. Thus, he is especially important for the development of the Talmud and the oral law. These rules provided the basis for later rabbinic interpretation.

There are many stories describing Hillel's character, picturing him as a man of great humility and extreme patience, pursuing peace even at the expense of truth. He is usually contrasted with his colleague Shammai, who is portrayed as impatient and ill-tempered. The most famous tale tells of a heathen who came to Shammai to be converted on the condition that he teach him the entire law while he stood on one foot. Shammai snubbed him, and so the heathen went to Hillel. Hillel replied, "What is hateful to you do not do to your neighbor; this is the entire Law, all the rest is commentary. Now go and learn it." Hillel thus became a model for Jews throughout history.

SHAMMAI

Shammai was a prominent rabbi who lived between 50 BC - 30 AD. His name is most frequently coupled with that of his equally famous contemporary, Hillel, who was president of the Sanhedrin while Shammai was vice-president. Shammai had the reputation for being strict and rigid in his application of the law and severely literal in his interpretation of the scriptures, while Hillel was more liberal and humane in applying the law and more imaginative in the use of the scriptures. Shammai was renowned for his hatred of Roman domination and prohibiting Jewish people from buying food or drink from Gentiles. After Hillel died, Shammai became president of the Sanhedrin. Hillel's grandson Gamaliel succeeded to the presidency after Shammai died, but the Sanhedrin remain influenced by the house of Shammai until around 70 AD.

Two schools of interpretation followed these two contemporaries - "the house of Shammai" and "the house of Hillel" - continuing to the time of the compilation of the Mishnah. though the house of Hillel seems to have gradually gained ascendancy over the house of Shammai. The debates and conversations between the two rabbis or the two schools are recorded in the Mishnah and the Talmud, pertaining to such matters as offerings, priestly dues, tithes, Levitical cleanness and uncleanness, the observance of the Sabbath, marriage and divorce. [8] 

Characteristics

Reverence of learning above civil law

Arrogance towards compromising Jews and pagans

Extreme legalism

Despised life's delicacies, practiced fasting (Mondays, Thursdays) and public almsgiving

Esteemed tradition

Had no interest in politics, except when it threatened religious freedom.

Formed brotherhoods.

Hypocritical

Beliefs

Emphasized Torah and oral tradition

Divine providence

Reality of spiritual realm, they believed in the existence of both angels and demons (Acts 23:8)

Rewards and punishment in afterlife

Hope of personal Messiah

Essenes

"The Essenes were another religious sect within Judaism that had its origins in the second century BC. Like the Pharisees, the Essenes were concerned principally with maintaining ritual purity in obedience to the law of Moses. The Essenes lived and worked in Jewish society; they tried to influence people by the simple, altruistic life they followed. Some Essenes also lived in their own communities, to which they returned each night after work.

There were numerous religious factions within Judaism, and one such group, which may only have had vague connections with the Essenes, established a community on the western shore of the Dead Sea. This group regarded itself as the true Israel and fled to the wilderness to prepare for the final visitation of God by keeping themselves pure from all defilement. Many documents written by members of this sect were discovered in caves near the Dead Sea where they had been hidden just before the Romans destroyed the settlement. These documents, the Dead Sea Scrolls, have provided detailed information about this religious sect and its beliefs." [9] 

While this group is not specifically mentioned in the New Testament, they bear striking resemblance or similarity with the New Testament Church. They were an ascetic communal sect that represented the strictest of the Hasidim of the Maccabean times. The designation Essenes seem to embrace a number of ascetic groups scattered throughout Palestine, with headquarters at Qumran near the Dead Sea. It is believed that their headquarters was at Jerusalem until 105 BC upon the persecution, led by Alexander Jannaeus 104-76 BC. Then they moved to Qumran.

Characteristics

Communal and ascetic (withdrew themselves from people); they believed in equal sharing

Agricultural and pietistic

Comprised of three orders: priests, Levites, and laymen. To become a part of the Qumran community, you had to apply and then you would have a two-year probationary period before induction to a lifetime vow.

Wore only white, symbolic of purity; most diligent students of scripture even more that the Pharisees

Committed to an oath of secrecy

Worshiped, read scripture, and engaged in ritual daily

Face the sun to pray, not Jerusalem

Adjured slavery

Sent gifts to, but did not offer sacrifices in the temple.

According to Josephus the Jewish historian, there were about 4000 Essenes

Beliefs

They believed they were the new covenant, end-time community and sons of light.

They believed in the coming of two Messiahs, the Aaronic priestly or spiritual Messiah and the Davidic royal, political Messiah (believed He would lead them into battle and they would be invincible

They believed in immortalit,y but not the resurrection of the body (soul lives on, but body dies eternal)

Justification by grace

Salvation and purity comes through the aid of the Spirit.

Vertical and eschatological dualism ( the world below vs. the world above, the world that is evil vs. the world that is coming which is good)

Zealots

"The Zealots were another Jewish sect, who may be related to the Sicarii ("dagger men"). This group of political activists flourished from 6 to 66 AD. Regarding God alone as their sovereign, they attempted to overthrow the Romans and those who collaborated with them by violent means, including assassination. They helped to incite and encourage the Jewish revolt of 66-73 AD and perished with Jerusalem in 70 AD." [10] 

The Zealots were an extremist anti-Roman sect, which drew inspiration from the Hasmoneans. The Zealots came into being around 6 AD under the leadership of Judas Gamala (the Galilean, Cananean). They are believed to be the reasons for the destruction of the temple when John of Gischala led a revolt against the Romans (66-73 AD). This revolt brought about both the destruction of the Zealots and the Temple.

Masada (an area south of the Dead Sea), their last stronghold, memorializes both their courage and the depth of their conviction in what they believed. There, in 73 AD, 960 men, women, and children committed suicide rather than surrender to the Romans. The most radical among them were called the dagger men or assassins (Latin - Sicarius). Their slogan encapsulated their mission: "The sword and not sparingly; no king but the Lord."

Characteristics

Inspired by a political Messianism, which sought the freedom and autonomy of the Jews.

Developed left of the Pharisees. Jewish scholar Joseph Klausner calls them simply an active, extremist Pharisees (Jesus of Nazareth, p. 205)

Beliefs

No human should be called Lord; hence, their detestation of the Romans

Their movement was founded in the jealousy of God, and that they were God's instruments of wrath

They thought they would usher in messianic Kingdom of temporal and political character

Emphasized the theocratic ideals of the Pharisees

Had a great zeal for the law (Torah)

Taxes should be paid unto God alone who is the only king

Herodians

Another sect that scripture doesn't mention much about is the Herodians. Modern scholarship expresses some uncertainty about their identity. Matthew and Mark alone mention them. Along with the Pharisees, they appear as opponents of Jesus.

Characteristics

Developed to the extreme left of the Sadducees

Political group, with only secondary interest in religion

Beliefs

Closely parallelled those of the Sadducees

Hope of the Jewish nation rests in the Herodian family

Palestine Under Roman Rule

Rome's relentless march eastward began in earnest with its wars with Carthage, N. Africa (Punic Wars, 264-146 BC). Once this war was victorious over a people whose culture centered around the water, Rome became master of land and sea. Greek civilization essentially ended when Corinth fell to Mummius in 146 BC. This date marks the official end of the Hellenistic Period in the Mediterranean. Pompey the Great was commissioned to clear the Mediterranean of pirates and silence Mithridates, king of Pontus in Asia Minor, who continually harassed the Romans. In 66 BC, he defeated the Pontic monarch, annexing Syria where he headquartered for further battles. The Greeks were completely taken over by Pompey when Ptolemaic Egypt was conquered by Rome in 30 BC.

Though having successfully received their independence from the Seleucids from 164 to 63 BC, a struggle for power among the Hasmoneans in Jerusalem invited Roman conquest. Upon the death of Salome Alexandra (67 BC), her two sons, Aristobulus II and Hyrcanus II sought Pompey's aid in determining who was legitimate sovereign of Judea. Pompey made no haste in coming to a decision, and Aristobulus - the rightful heir to the throne - took up arms. Upon this open opportunity, Rome made its move. Jerusalem was captured and 12,000 Jews were killed. The Jews would not be a sovereign state again until 1947.

A. THE HERODS

1. Herod the Great - Edomite (37-34 BC) - Matthew 2:1-18

Had 10 wives, favorite Marianne

Great builder: Temple, Fortresses at Jerusalem, Samaria, Caesarea

Ruthless: killed family members and sought to kill the baby Jesus

Administrative genius, regained the prestige of Palestine

Hated by Jews

2. Herod Archelaus (4 BC - 6 AD) - Matthew 11:22

Son of Herod the Great and Malthace (Samaritan)

Ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, Idumea

Ruthless: killed 3000 Jews on Passover

Exiled to Gaul 6 AD

3. Herod Antipas (4 BC - 39 AD) - Luke 3:19

Son of Herod the Great and Malthace

Tetrarch of Galilee and Perea

Imprisoned and executed John the Baptist

Jesus called him that "fox"

Ablest of Herod's sons: great builder - city of Tiberias

Married King Aretas IV's daughter and divorced her to marry Herodias, wife of his half-brother Philip

4. Herod Philip (4 BC - 34 AD) - Luke 3:1

Son of Herod the Great and Cleopatra of Jerusalem

Tetrarch of Gaulanitis, Trachonitis, Auranitis, Iturea

Rebuilt Panias as Caesarea Philippi (Matthew 16:13) and Bethsaida Julias

Married Salome, daughter of Herodias

First Jewish prince to impress heads of Roman emperors on his coins

5. Herod the King: Agrippa I (37-44 AD) - Acts 12:1-4

Son of Aristobulus and grandson of Herod the Great and Mariamne

Brought up in Rome with the imperial family

King of Judea, Galilee, Samaria, Perea

Severely treated apostles and died suddenly (Acts 12:2 ff.)

Killed James

6. Herod Agrippa II (48-70 AD) - Acts 25:13-26:32

Tetrarch of Chalcis and northern territory

Known best for encounter with Paul

B. PROCURATORS

Upon the exile of Archelaus, Judea, Samaria and Idumea were ruled by Roman governors from 6 - 66 AD, except during the interval 41 - 44 AD when Herod Agrippa I ruled as king. Three procurators appeared in the New Testament: Pontius Pilate (26-36 AD, Matthew 27:2 ff.), Antonius Felix (52-59 AD, Acts 23:24ff), and Procius Festus (59-62 AD, Acts 24:27ff).

Social Classes

Social class and status in 1st century AD Palestine were determined in accordance with the rules of ritual purity. The upper class comprised members of the religious establishment, such as the Sadducees, scribes, Pharisees, and Jerusalem priests. The Sanhedrin was a deliberative body whose membership was drawn from these groups. For all practical purposes, there was no middle class. The lower class consisted primarily of the Am Ha Arez ("people of the land") - Jews who were ignorant of the law because of lack of education and who did not scrupulously observe those commandments with which they were familiar. The generally hostile attitude of the Pharisees toward the Am Ha Arez is expressed in John 7:49: "But this crowd, who do not know the law, are accursed" (RSV).

There was yet another social class in 1st century Palestine, which can be designated as "untouchables." This group was composed of Samaritans, tax collectors, prostitutes, shepherds, lepers, Gentiles, and perhaps worst of all, Jews who became as Gentiles (e.g., the prodigal son of Luke 15:11-32). The rules of ritual purity as generally observed prevented any form of social contact between the upper class and the untouchables, and made contacts with the Am Ha Arez highly undesirable. Against this background, the horror of the Pharisees over Jesus' association with tax collectors and sinners is thoroughly understandable (Mark 2:15-17).

Jerusalem

A further consequence of this religious criterion for determining social class and status was an uneasy tension between Jerusalem and the rural areas of Palestine, particularly Galilee during the last two centuries of the second Temple period. Those in Jerusalem regarded Galilee as a place where ignorance of the Torah was the rule (John 1:46). Jerusalem was primarily a religious center, whose major industry was the Temple cult. The total population of Jerusalem in the 1st century AD has been estimated at 25,000 to 40,000. Most of these were either artisans and craftsmen devoted to building and adorning the Temple (still incomplete before it was destroyed; see John 2:20) or priests and Levites involved in the many ritual activities of the temple. Though Jews were expected to travel to Jerusalem for each of the three annual pilgrimage festivals, this requirement proved difficult for rural Palestinian farmers.

The Religious Context of 1st Century Jerusalem

The religious context of the New Testament era was a continuum of these intertestamental religious conditions, plus the religious practices of Babylon:

Restoration of Temple worship

Emergence of high priest as social political leader

Rekindling of Messianic hope

Jewish exclusivism manifested in rivalry against Samaritans. John Hyrcanus l, destroyed Samaritan Temple (135 BC) built by Sanballat on Mt. Gerizim. Sanballat was the governor of Samaria (407 BC) attested by the Elephantine Papyri

Time of doctrinal development

Tendency towards dualism

Concept of successive world empires

Expectation of divine mediator as prophet and redeemer

Systematic development of doctrine of angels and demons

Heaven perceived as Persian royal court (in Old Testament, there is no concept of heaven)

Expectation of resurrection and retribution.

The Tithe and The Temple

The tithe demanded by Mosaic command was only on the produce of the land, not upon wages or bartered goods. The rural farmers, therefore, bore the brunt of this taxation and quite naturally resented the privileged position of urban artisans, merchants, and priests who were not obliged to tithe. The temptation not to tithe the produce of the land was very great, and many farmers succumbed to it. Their untithed produce was not kosher, and thus to be avoided by those, like the Pharisees, who were religiously scrupulous. In addition to the first and second tithes demanded of farmers (the second tithe had to be spent in the vicinity of Jerusalem), it has been estimated that Roman tax levies amounted to 10 to 15 percent of an individual's income. Religious taxes, together with Roman taxes, added up to a crushing tax burden of from 25 to 30 percent. The fact that the Jews finally revolted against their Roman oppressors in 66 AD is not difficult to comprehend. Throughout the 1st century AD, in fact, minor revolts in Palestine occurred with predictable frequency. Many of these occurred during the three annual pilgrimage festivals in Jerusalem, when the normal population of 25,000 to 40,000 swelled to 500,000 or more. These festivals provided ideal opportunities for uprisings, and the Romans were particularly alert for such eventualities. Jesus was executed during one such Passover festival because he was suspected of being a political revolutionary (Mark 15:26).

Hebrews Writings in Second Temple Period

Some portions of the Hebrew Scriptures were still in the process of composition at the beginning of the second Temple period. The last three prophetic books - Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi - were written from the end of the sixth century to the mid-fifth century BC. Later, rabbis expressed the opinion that the Spirit of God had been taken from Israel when these prophets ceased their labors. The Chronicler ends his work by referring to the decree of Cyrus (538 BC), and both Ezra-Nehemiah, and Esther appear to have been written in the 5th century bc.

The second Temple period witnessed not only the completion of those writings that were later regarded as inspired and authoritative in Judaism, but also the full recognition of all 24 sacred books. Prior to the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC, the Mosaic Law had not been observed with any consistency (according to 2 Kings 22, it had been mislaid for an unknown period of time), nor had the classical prophets always received appropriate recognition. But after 586 BC, the Torah occupied a position of unquestioned sanctity in the lives and thoughts of the Jewish people, replacing in many respects, the temple cult even before its final dissolution in 70 AD.

The Jewish Scriptures are divided into three sections, designated by Jews with the acrostic "Tanak": (1) Torah ("Law" or "Revelation"), (2) Nebi'im ("Prophets"), and (3) Kethubim ("Writings"). It is generally claimed that while the Law and Prophets enjoyed canonical status prior to the 2nd century BC, the Writings were finally declared canonical at the rabbinic Council of Jamnia though the historicity of this is disputed. The rabbis are thought to have discussed whether certain biblical books should continue to be part of scripture. In reality, the Jewish canon of scripture was fully defined from traditional usage by the 1st century BC.

The Law consisted of five books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The Prophets consisted of two sections, the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the 12 Minor Prophets). The Writings included Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, Esther, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Ruth, and Daniel. The total number of books in this canon is 24, identical with the Protestant canon of 39 books, since Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, and the 12 are each counted as only one book. The Alexandrian canon of Hellenistic Judaism was more extensive, and the extra books (called Apocrypha by Protestants) are all found in the Roman Catholic Old Testament canon of 46 books.

Apocalypticism

The second Temple period provided the setting for the rise and fall of apocalypticism within Judaism. Apocalypticism (from a Greek word meaning "revelation") was a kind of eschatology ("account of final events") that assumed that ideal conditions could not be restored on earth unless God first intervened climactically to destroy evil (particularly foreign oppressors) and vindicate the righteous (Israel). Jewish hopes of an earthly kingdom of peace and prosperity were dashed again and again upon the Jews' return from Babylonian exile. Instead, the Jews suffered terribly at the hands of the pagan kings. Between 200 BC and 100 AD, a particular type of literature appeared to answer the many questions God's people began to ask relative to their faith and destiny. This genre of literature and kind of belief was called "apocalyptic." Apocalyptic visionaries composed many documents, called apocalypses, in which they attempted to read the signs of the times and predict the coming of the visitation of God. Since there was a widespread consciousness that the era of prophecy was over, these apocalyptists wrote not under their own names but under the names of ancient Israelite worthies, such as Moses, Abraham, Enoch, and Ezra.

Predicated upon a Jewish eschatological linear view of history and influenced by Platonic ideals on reality, it discloses heavenly secrets; it also promises the imminent coming of a supernatural Kingdom, the salvation of God's people, and the destruction of evil and the enemies of God.

Among the more significant expectations of Jewish apocalypticism were the:

Coming of a Messiah

Coming of a great period of tribulation, sometimes called the messianic woes

Resurrection of the just

Judgment of the wicked and the reward of the righteous.

Distinctives

Revelatory - despite the absence of prophets. Revelations, dreams, vision are common

Pseudonymous - books containing revelatory messages claimed authentication and validation by appearing und the names of ancient divines of Israel (e.g., Book of Enoch, Apocalypse of Baruch)

Heavy use of symbolism - code language, animals, and birds

Dualistic in world-view and eschatology - contrast between this evil age ruled by Satan and the glorious coming age in which God will reign

Deterministic - the new age rests totally in God's hand and cannot be hastened or delayed by man.

Pessimistic - pessimism toward this age. The wicked are beyond redemption once the new age

Numerological - gematria - numbers have special value and significance

Cosmic upheavals immediately precede the new age.

Regularity of heavenly visitants, angels

Conflict in the heavenlies, not on earth

Apocalyptic beliefs probably provided the motivation for most-if not all-of the Jewish revolts against the Romans.