Most Important World Famous Educationists Theology Religion Essay

Published Date: 23 Mar 2015

Plato and Rousseau are the most important world famous educationists who have contributed much to the advancement of human civilization. Present education system of the world stands on both the above thinkers.

Plato's educational philosophy was grounded in his famous work 'The Republic', 'The Laws' wherein the individual was best served by being subordinated to a just society. Rousseau wrote in his book 'Emile', 'Discourse of Political Economy', 'The New Heloise' and 'Considerations on the Government of Poland'.

In keeping in mind the philosophies, ideas of Plato and Rousseau on education theory discussed above, this study focuses on the similarities and dissimilarities between these two philosophers share in regard of philosophy of education. It also aims at finding out the influences among the education theories of Plato and Rousseau have on contemporary and succeeding generations. All over the world in general, and at measuring the influences reflected in planning and designing the national education policy in Bangladesh in particular.

1.2 Rationale of the Study

This research is mainly for gathering knowledge. Every movement or social situation has a chronology. Without understanding this chronology, it is difficult to understand the current situation of that movement. Plato and Rousseau's Education theories contributed much to the salvation of their country men which is really praiseworthy. Their theoretical and practical efforts helped to break the long standing superstitions, blind faith and absurd ideas. This study will be a matter of great teaching for the present and succeeding generations that will fulfill the knowledge gap existing in this area. Their realistic and utilitarian views on education certainly will play an effective role in preparing modern citizens fit for modern world. The investigated information drawn from the comparative study on the education theory of Plato and Rousseau in planning and designing can be used in the formulation of national education policy of our country.

1.3 General Objective of the Study

The general objective of the study is to -

Analyze a comparative study on the educational theory of Plato and Rousseau.

1.4 Specific Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives of the study are to -

Assess, evaluate and compare the philosophy of education developed by Plato and Rousseau.

Find out the influence of their philosophy of education on contemporary and succeeding generations.

Assess the role of Philosophy of Plato and Rousseau in planning and designing the national education policy in our country.

1.5 Research Questions of the Study

What did Plato and Rousseau mean by philosophy of education?

What roles did Plato and Rousseau play to the development of the philosophy of education?

What influences did the philosophies of education of Plato and Rousseau have on the contemporary philosophers and thinkers?

What are the results to be drawn from the comparative study between the philosophies of education of Plato and Rousseau?

What roles of philosophy of Plato and Rousseau in planning and deigning the national education policy in our country?

1.6 Definition of Key Terms

Education

Etymologically, the word education is derived from Educare (Latin) "bring up", which is related to Educere "bring out", "bring forth what is within", "bring out potential" and Ducere "to lead" (Source www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=educate; video.ted.com/talks/podcast/AimeeMullins_2009p.mp4).

Theory

Some social researchers have meant by theory special ideas such as- concept, frame of reference, conceptual scheme, perspective, hypothesis, generalization, ideal type, paradigm, typology etc. (Alam, 1993, p. 107)

Education theory

Educational theory may refer to either speculative educational thought in general or to a theory of education as something that guides, explains or describes educational practice.

Philosophy

Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind and language.

1.7 Scope of the Study

This research will cover Plato and Rousseau's thoughts along with the Major writings on them. Available information on them from Magazines and newspapers of that time are also used to find out their actual philosophy of education. We shall discuss their philosophy of education along with the thoughts of other philosophers who have contributed much to the development of education in modern society. We shall assimilate the ideas of Plato and Rousseau with the ideas of other philosophers of education. In this way the researcher would make a comprehensive study on the philosophy of education.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

The study would be mainly based on printed documents such as various articles, essays, journals, books and research works done on the comparative study on the educational theory of Plato and Rousseau. Concurrently all information from individuals related to the present study needs more time and money. There are only few research work conducted on the issue and very few articles might be published on the journals but the researcher did not find any research work on that issue in Bangladesh.

Chapter 2: Review of Literature

Reviewing literature means study of other literatures for finding out the research gap. So far as the researcher has surveyed, this is a new field to study. The researcher has gone through all the writings of Plato, as well as good number of books written on him such as: 'The Republic', 'Laws' etc. The researcher also reviewed books written by Rousseau. These are: Emile, Discourse on Equality, A discourse on political Economy, Social contract etc. Here, the researcher has presented some studies related to Plato and Rousseau's education theory by different researchers like Patricia M. Lines, Shackling the Imagination: Education for Virtue in Plato and Rousseau. Many aspects of Plato's recommendations for education resemble those adopted by constitutional democracies in different countries. According to him education must be compulsory and free to all, with government control and support. Plato identified four interdependent virtues (Wisdom, Courage, Discipline and Justice) as essential to be ideal in 'The Republic'. Wisdom guides the philosopher-ruler. Courage moves the auxiliaries (the soldiers and the bureaucrats). Discipline, sometimes translated as moderation, assures that each class carries out its assigned role and that the governed obey the governors. Justice- the supreme ordering principle-ensures harmony and balance within the individual and the state. These virtues should lead to a full understanding of the Truth, the Good and the Beautiful, which according to Plato is the highest reality. Like Plato, Rousseau aims at creating an ideal citizen. Unlike Plato, he wants to prepare this citizen for democracy. Rousseau regards virtue as the ultimate goal of education. He offers a simple rule. Emile the 'Hero' in his book must never harm another. To achieve this goal, the tutor isolates the children from others. Both Plato and Rousseau offer a limited view of virtue. Still, both reveal a certainty that they fully understand and know how to encourage the right virtues. (www.amazon.com/shackling-immagination-education-rousseau-humanitas/dp/b0043uonp08) Samuel Scolnicov, 'Plato on Education as the Development of Reason'. Plato stresses his Socrates' new concept of reason (nous). Reason is not a tool for attaining goals independently thought worthwhile: possessions, honor, personal and political success; rather, rationality itself, expressed in the giving of reasons and the avoidance of contradictions, confers value to goals and opinions. The ultimate educational objective, then, is to bring about a revolution in the learner's perception of the role of reason, namely the recognition of its normative, and not merely theoretical or instrumental nature. Plato's theory of education aims at specifying the conditions of the growth of the Socratic man, whose soul is free from contradictions and whose excellence is justified knowledge.(www.bu.edu/wcp/papers/Anci/Anciscol.htm) Farhan Zainulabideen, 'A Critical Review of the Aims of Education in the Western Tradition'. Plato is the earliest important thinker on education. He is also the first to have laid down a comprehensive outlook of education that was integrated with his views of society and its aims. In Republic, Plato's primary aim of education is to produce the elites needed to govern the ideal city. The supreme product of the education process is the philosopher-king who rules the city. The highest aim of education for Plato is the knowledge of good, which in turn instills the four great virtues: wisdom, courage, discipline and justice. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's intellectual range and achievements are staggering. He made epochal contributions to political theory, literature and education. His educational tract, 'Emile', transformed the debate about children upbringing and was very largely instrumental in altering the Western perception of childhood. He overturned conventional wisdom on the nature of childhood and education with a radical discourse in this fictional novel. The fundamentals of Rousseau's educational creed are 'nature' and 'freedom'. He believed that children should develop their skill and capacity in nature and enjoy freedom. This goal in education was actually the first step in ensuring a more social society, where natural law is seen to accomplish harmony and balance and to get rid of artificial man-imposed coercive restrictions (http//www.ips.org.pk/education/IIII-acriticalreviewoftheaimsof education).

Plato was disturbed by condition of society, its corruption and shallow-dreams. In his famous work 'The Republic', Plato tried to teach Good and beauty to his students (Lee, 1987, p. 161). Jean-Jacques Rousseau convinced that men and women had lost their worth that can be revived in natural phenomena so that we might learn to live together in ways that foster a better ethics of citizenship (Bloom, 1979, p. 25). Rousseau believes that the primary goal of education is to prepare men and women to be moral agents who, while living autonomously, also live with each other.

Many researches have been done on various aspects of Plato and Rousseau. But no research has yet been done on the problem of education theory of Plato and Rousseau. So there may be some gap in this field. For this reason this problem may be an important issue of a research work. The present study is such an attempt.

Chapter 3: Methodology

The methodology of the present research is descriptive and qualitative. Generally descriptive research is done on education related problem, academic decision making, designing plan, changing the curriculum and etc.(Samad, 2010, p.21) Qualitative research is done on some qualitative events or topics (that are related with quality). Qualitative research is very important especially in behaviorism. Because through education the personality of a man changes. (Tapan, 1987, p.21)

The main characteristic of the descriptive research is to provide reasonable explanation of the topic through data analysis. So it is found that descriptive research not only includes the description of the event or situation/state/condition but also includes comparative discussion, classification, explanation and evaluation.(Ali, 1988, p.19) In a descriptive research a researcher does not control the data. Only the process of observation, description and analysis of data can be controlled.(Zaman, 1987, p.7)

Aristotle for the first time used deductive method in case of presenting descriptive method through argument and after a century later Francis Bacon used the direct observational method. This method is known as inductive method. In this method data are collected sequentially from every field and decision is made. Inductive method is from particular to general. On the other hand, deductive method is from general to particular. (Zaman, 1987, p.11, 12)

So, Qualitative and Descriptive method fits well in accomplishing the present research study from the selection of the materials till the completion of the research work. It includes the collection of material leaving no gap in the connected aspects of the study, the scanning of the materials, their systematization and synchronization so that clear vision becomes apparent to complete the dissertation. Moreover, this method also covers, while writing the thesis, the arguments in favor of and against the problem raised and then ratification of powerful opinion with convincing evidences and arguments. First the information has been collected from primary and secondary sources. The writings of Plato and Rousseau have been considered as the Primary data (Plato: 'The Republic' and 'The Laws'. Rousseau: 'Emile', 'Discourse of Political Economy', 'The New Heloise', and 'Considerations on the Government of Poland') and the writings on Plato and Rousseau published in various books, journals, article and research works have been considered as the Secondary data. The researcher has identified the contradiction carefully among educational theory of Plato and Rousseau maintaining strict objectivity to fulfill the aims and purpose of the present study. The collected data have been analyzed in order to find out the similarity and dissimilarity between Plato and Rousseau and by their thinking what kind of philosophy developed and influenced the succeeding generations. The researcher has used the logical analysis for data analysis. The researcher has followed the American Psychological Association (APA) code and conduct for using the reference.

Chapter 4: Plato

Plato's Philosophy of Education

Plato's educational philosophy was grounded in his vision of the ideal 'The Republic', 'The Laws' wherein the individual was best served by being subordinated to a just society. "Plato proposes a thoroughgoing communism for the guardians, and (I think) also for the soldiers, though this is not very clear. The guardians are to have small houses and simple food; they are to live as in a camp, dining together in companies; they a re to have no private property beyond what is absolutely necessary (Russell, 1946, p. 127)." Socialism is now out-dated in the present world. Most of the people in the world now believe in individual freedom. The system that Plato has talked about for philosophers with a view to building an ideal state is not effective in most of the countries including Bangladesh.

The Educational Theory of Plato

Plato's Theory of education was an indispensable necessity for mankind. It was a positive remedy for the problems and operation of justice in an ideal state. Rousseau says, Plato's Republic' is not a work on polities but the finest treatise on education that has ever been written. Nothing was more important to Plato in human life as education. He considers education the greatest thing in human life as he mentions in his famous book 'The Republic', 'the one great thing".

Major ideas in Plato's educational theory are

Education for all: Plato would educate every boy and girl to the limits of their abilities.

State education: Education should be provided by the state, not by parents.

Plato's suggestion was that the state will take the responsibility of educating the whole nation has been accepted in most of the countries. But it is not still properly implemented in Bangladesh because of her scarcity of fund and inability of parents but the country is trying to educate her all children.

Aims of Education

"To produce future civil servants for the state.

To produce virtuous, efficient and intellectual rulers for the country.

To glorify courage and military skill among the warriors.

To develop competent, obedient, and temperate workers.

To develop a social disposition among all citizens.

Virtue is knowledge and education is the main thing to acquire virtue." (Bhuiyan, 2010, p. 269)

"It (Plato's theory of education) is an attempt to cure a mental malady by mental medicine (Barker, 1967, p. 314)."

Element of Plato's Education System

The first thing should be considered in education, which is divided into two parts-

Music

'Music' used in broad term for drama, history, art, letters, philosophy, oratory and music in real term. "Music means everything that is in the province of the muses (Russell, 1946, p. 126)." Plato had made Protagoras speak of children's training in music as introducing rhythm and harmony into their souls and having a socializing influence; 'for the whole life of man stands in need of rhythm and harmony'. 'Music' is almost as wide as what we should call 'culture' (Cornford, 1941, p. 86). Music is not taught as a compulsory subject in our country as it was advocated by Plato. Nevertheless there are individual departments of Music and Theatre in public universities where students with special interests can study music.

Gymnastic

"Gymnastic means physical training and fitness" (Russell, 1946, p. 126). 'Gymnastics' is somewhat wider than what we call 'athletics'. The physical training suitable for a citizen soldier is briefly contrasted with that of the professional athlete. Finally, it appears that physical training, no less than education in literature and the arts, really has to do with the soul (Cornford, 1941, p. 90). Physical exercise is not taught as a compulsory subject in our country as it was advocated by Plato. But there are individual departments of Physical Exercise in public universities where students with special interests can study physical exercise. Physical exercise is of paramount importance in Bangladesh Army. In every institution in Bangladesh there is a course on physical exercise which is mandatory in military institutions only. Plato writes in his book 'The Republic'. I believe, gymnastic, for the body, and music for the mind.

The Curriculum of Plato's Education System

Plato define different stages for the organization and curriculum

Primary Education: Primary education mainly consisted of reading and writing ('Grammatic'); learning and reciting epic and dramatic poetry, lyre-playing and singing lyric poetry, the rudiments of arithmetic and geometry ('Music'); and athletic exercises ('Gymnastic') (Cornford, 1941, p. 65). Co-education at primary level till the age of eighteen years.The age that Plato has advocated for primary education is not totally accepted in our country. Rather it is confined within 6 to 11 years. In our country primary education is free and compulsory. The compulsory primary education law what Plato has talked about has been passed in Bangladesh in 1992.

Military Training: After elementary education two years of Physical education should be given to them and be selected for higher education to prepare for the future guardians of the state.

Military education is not compulsory in our country as Plato has proposed. It is only compulsory for those who are physically fit and interested in taking military training.

Higher Education: Higher education should be given from twenty to thirty-five years of age. At this stage a student will study mathematics, arithmetic, geometry, solid geometry, astronomy, harmonics, dialectic, program of studies, literature and philosophy. Later on he would be fit for a minor administrative position to get experience for the future more important governing positions. (Cornford, 1941, p. 230).

Our education system is not very lengthy as Plato has advocated. In our country one can enter into any profession after completing one's higher education or can study for getting M.Phil and Ph.D degree.

Plato has divided his educational curriculum into two levels. They are as follows:

Primary level of education

Higher level of education/ Higher education.

Primary Education

First stage (0-06)

Up to 6 years children will be provided with education to flourish his/her latent talents. Meanwhile they will be taught politeness, mannerism and good taste.

Second stage (06-18)

From 6 to 18 years children will be taught only literature, music, and preliminary education on mathematics. Meanwhile children will be able to attain the great qualities such as self-control, disciplinary, punctuality, and the belief on the God.

Third stage (18-20)

Age from 18 to 20 years will be fixed for students' physical exercise and military education. There will be no chance to teach any other subject within this time. The main purpose of this stage is to keep body fit and strong. Those who will succeed in the test at the end of the primary level will get the opportunity of receiving higher education.

Higher education

First stage (20-30)

This stage covers from 20 to 30 years. In this stage human beings will acquire knowledge on astrology, higher math, geometry, and music. In this stage they will be taught very carefully on these subjects and there will be an attempt to establish the relationship between math and reality.

Second stage (30-35)

This stage ranges from 30 to 35 years. In this stage students will be taught philosophy, logic and metaphysics etc.

Third stage (35-50)

This stage covers the time from 35 to 50 years. In this stage the students will acquire practical knowledge by combining their acquired knowledge and their real life experience, and they will be vested with small responsibilities of the state (Talukder and Awal, 2011, p. 95, 96). Plato classified the stages of education 2500 hundred years ago which has been adopted and differently categorized in four stages to meet the demands of the modern time. These stages are primary education, secondary education, higher secondary education and higher education.

Plato's View on Women Education

Plato also gives emphasis on women education and he prescribes the same kind of education for women like men. Women should have the same physical and educational training; they should know the art of war. The main aim of Plato was that each member of the society should undertake his work and responsibilities. Plato believed that women are equal to men and in some cases women are physically weaker than men or may not. He suggested that those who are equal to men should be allowed to learn the same thing like men. In his book 'The Republic' Plato describes how male and female receive the same education and be given the same duties in society. Thus the male and the female should be given the same duty of 'The Republic'. (Cornford, 1941, p. 141) Plato's opinion regarding women education has received the attention of the people of all over the world and the present world has accepted the ideas of Plato. It has also been accepted in Bangladesh which has enormously enriched the nation. As a result, there is seen the empowerment of women folk. Plato's opinion about women education has been received almost in many countries in the present world. The outcome of women education is as we see that many women, the Prime Minister, foreign minister, opposition party leader are in various important positions in Bangladesh.

Teaching Methods

Plato suggested different ways to educate the children such as through telling stories, play and imitation. Plato gives importance to nursery education, he thinks nursery education plays a vital role in the education of man; it helps to build his moral character and state of mind "The most important part of education is proper training in the nursery.

Enforced exercise does no harm to the body, but enforced learning will not stay in the mind. (Nath, 1979, p. 57) In our country Plato's material for education is used for the development of education. Besides, multimedia projector and visual sound system are used in higher level educational institutions, and maps, charts and models in primary level.

Plato's View on Moral Ethics

Plato presents his ideas for an ideal society in the 'The Republic' and he provided details about the curriculum and system of education. According to Plato the ideal society should care for their youth and the guardians would be responsible for the moral education of their children. Every person would know his duty and his responsibility. (Bhuiyan, 2010, p. 269) Plato talked about moral education in 427 BC, which is of paramount importance still in the perspective of Bangladesh. We teach our children moral lessons from the very beginning which is started by the parents, grandfathers and grandmothers. Moral institutions are also imparted to the student by their teachers in the schools, colleges and universities. Besides these, ethics is included in many disciplines in our country. Moral deterioration is very acute in everywhere. The only way to get rid of this problem is to practice or nourish moral education properly.

Chapter 5: Rousseau

Rousseau's Philosophy of Education

Rousseau's philosophy of education is called the philosophy of Naturalism. Rousseau's philosophy of life and society has been reflected in his philosophy of education. Proper education is achieved through the understanding of natural objects and beauties. In this system, nature itself is the teacher. According to Rousseau, children will learn from three sorts of teachers such as nature, human being and objects. Having influenced and taught by this three sources is called an educated man by Rousseau. We can control human being and objects. But we cannot control nature. So education should be confined to the rules of nature. "Go back to the lap of nature" this idea is closely associated with Rousseau. In his book 'Emile', (Nurnobi, Fouzia and Champa., 2006, p. 277) he used nature in three senses. Psychological Nature, Physical Nature, Biological Nature

Rousseau's views on the aim of education

Rousseau opines that the aim of education is not only to acquire knowledge but also to help flourishing of children's talents.

The aim of education for children will be different on the basis of its age. In childhood, education should build up its physical development. There is no need of moral and social teaching.

The education in boyhood should aim at the exercise of sensual and mental development.

The purpose of female education should be preparing a woman fit for her male counterpart. Excessive learning is not necessary for the womenfolk. (Dali and Imam, 1999, p. 42)

Curriculum of Rousseau

The education curriculum of Rousseau is not definite and well planned. Rousseau launched a war against the conventional education. So he was against the traditional curriculum. Rousseau did not like reading books. He said, 'Books teach us to talk about something on which we have no practical knowledge.' Nonetheless, he selected the novel 'Robinson Crusoe' as mandatory for Emile. According to him, this book can help Emile to be self-confident and self-sufficient. According to curriculum, physical exercise and health education have been given much emphasis in adolescence. Importance has also been given on the arts of hand made goods and vocational works. He has also talked about religious and moral education. But he was against Female education. Household chores will be learning tasks of women. Rousseau's education related curriculum is not precise and well planned. (Uddin and Das, 2006, p. 247, 248)

His education system which he advocated about 200 years ago is not fully coherent with the exiting education curriculum of Bangladesh. Nevertheless, the appeal and the necessity of his education about nature are still effective. For example, novel laureate poet Rabindranath Tagore has established Shanty Nike ton in the midst of nature. Even in Bangladesh, Rajshahi, Chittagong, and Jahanggirnagor universities are established in the midst of natural beauties so that students and teachers can learn from nature.

Teaching style of Rousseau

His teaching method was inventive. In this method, a children is kept in the place of invention. A children learns through the process of examination. (Dali and Imam, 1999, p. 43) In fact, through the process of Rousseau's thinking laboratory method, invention method, education through work, sensual experience method were emerged.

Rousseau's discovery method of learning is relevant to the existing creative method of Bangladesh. Because in the creative method, there is always a riddle or a story where students are to discover or find out the answers.

Educational Framework

"Rousseau suggested two types of education framework based on different conditions

Firstly, education framework for a state and society

Secondly, education for preserving survival of civilization

Stages of Education in Emile

He divided education systems in five stages. Such as-

Stage 1 Infancy (0-5): Education in infancy must be based on physique so that the limbs of a children should be developed proportionally. No need to develop any habit at this time. He said "A children is bad because he is weak; make him strong and he will be good." Everything is good as it leaves the hands of the Author of things; everything degenerates in the hands of man (Bloom, 1979, p. 37).

Stage 2 The age of Nature (5-12): No particular traditional education should be given now. No education on language, history, geography needs to be provided now. Even religious education is not necessary. Rousseau said, "Exercise the body, the organs, the senses and powers, but keep the soughing follow as long as you can." (Cited in Bhuiyan, 2010, p. 313).

Stage 3 Pre-adolescence (12-15): Before adolescence a children needs not to read any special book. In this stage, Rousseau has advised to include physical lesson or any sort of education related to art and culture so that he can develop a sense of respect towards Labour (Dali and Imam, 1999, p. 43).

Stage 4 Puberty (15-20): Rousseau has advised to start social education in this stage. Here children can develop a habit of social responsibility, co-operation, respect, love, and fellow feeling. Rousseau said, 'we are born twice once for existing and again for loving; once for the species and again for sex'. (Cited in Bhuiyan, 2010, p. 317)

Stage 5 Adulthood (20-25): The adult 'Emile' is introduced to his ideal partner, Sophie. The final task of the tutor is to 'instruct the young couple in their marital rights and duties'. (Boyd, 1911, p. 130)

5.11 Rousseau's View on Women Education

Rousseau has negative opinion about women education, which is the result of his experiences in his personal and family life. His attitude towards women education is not accepted by any modern state of the world. A nation can not prosper keeping half of the population uneducated. So Rousseau's attitude towards women education is totally unacceptable and unrealistic in the modern perspective. This is a huge drawback of his philosophy of education.

Expart 1 said that "Rousseau has proposed to keep women under male domination for children bearing because women become inactive in that time; according to Rousseau, this is the main reason of not giving the supremacy of women over men. There is another reason behind this that is the father has to be sure of the true identity of the new born children. This is the secret of Rousseau of not accepting the equality of men and women. Rousseau has been affected by the fear of women from the civilization; he has seen women as devious. In a poem Rousseau says about women, 'Enchanter and dangerous whom I worship and detest…who transform male into slaves'."

Expart 2 said that "Rousseau has devalued the freedom and morality of women because Rousseau considers women as female not male. To Rousseau men are powerful and active and women are weak and inactive. So women will be under male dominance because the male are powerful. To Rousseau living under the powerful one is the rule of nature."

Chapter 6: Influence of Plato and Rousseau on other Philosophers

Aristotle

According to Aristotle primary mission of education was to produce good and virtuous citizens. All who have meditated on the art of governing mankind have been convinced that the fate of empires depends on the education of youth. Aristotle following the path of Plato planned and designed his plan of education. He preseribed that education should be cultivated and controlled by the state. (Rahman, 2008, p. 108, 109)

Rabindranath Tagore

Rabindranath has close affinity with Plato and Rousseau's vision regarding education system. In 1918, Tagore established Visva-Bharati (University) at Santiniketan. After few years in 1922, he also established the institute of Rural Reconstruction in the same area; which later on called Sriniketan with the participation of L. K. EImhirst.

Tagore was influenced by the idea of Tapobon Like Rousseau he established a school in a natural atmosphere which he called Tapobon. His Scheme of education is given below

A close proximity to nature away from the noise and absolute of the urban life;

A close relationship between Guru and the disciple - in almost a family like atmosphere;

A quest to achieve higher truth - something that was hinted in different Upanishadicterts of ancient India (Tagore, 2010, p. 12,13).

Tagore's thoughts on Women Education

Like Plato, Tagore realized the need of women education for their empowerment and for the progress and development of the country. Women's empowerment is possible through proper education, which he urged in his educational essay, 'Strishiksha' (Female Education), initially published in the journal Sabuj Patra and later translated as 'The Education of Women' in August 1915 (O'Connell, 2010, p. 85).

Chapter7: Analysis and Discussion

7.1 Assessment, Evaluation and Comparison

Plato has established his philosophy of education based on his philosophy of life and thought. His theory of education is found well organized in 'The Republic' and 'The Laws'. The main purpose of these two books was to write philosophy of education suitable for attempting to establish equality in the society.

Though there are many criticisms against Plato, this must be kept in mind that dialogues of Plato are valuable asset in the world library and 'The Republic' is the best among all of his dialogues. It can be said that if someone reads only 'The Republic', he can have the whole of Plato. We know not only about metaphysics (Philosophy), theology, ethics, and psychology but also about education, state policy and art in this writing. The problems that we face in this writing are not uncommon to this modern world. Modernism is very conspicuous in Plato's theory of equality, socialism, feminism, population control and sound population. Nietzsche's theories of ethics and aristocracy, Rousseau's theory of education policy and natural world, Bergson's theory of life force and Freud's psychology are simultaneously present in The Republic. In a word, is anything absent in this writing? No, everything is visible.

In 386 BC Plato established his educational institution (Plato's Academy) in the city, Athens. Though directly he was not successful in transforming Athens into his imaginary ideal state, he started teaching his pupils and disciples on philosophy, mathematics and problems and affairs of state. He believed that if the young generation would have been taught in his academy, they would become the rulers of state, as a result the crisis of Greek society and civilization would be solved. This theory and thought are directly noticeable in 'The Republic'. Probably Plato wrote this book before establishing his academy.

But social and political issues have also been discussed in 'The Republic'. 'The Republic' is divided into ten chapters. The states that Plato has discussed in the Chapter 8 and Chapter 9 as different to the ideal state are the examples of the Greek States. (Not only the primitive types of Greek states but also modern types of states are visible in this discussion.) Again, social and political aspects of state have been discussed in Chapter 2, Chapter 3 and Chapter 4. (The primary structure of a state, developing state, the compulsory qualities of rulers, the classification of citizens in a state, the personal wealth of rulers and familial relationship etc.) But also in this discussion Plato has placed much emphasis on internal policy among these things, not on the detailed description of any examples. In the rest of the book, Plato has discussed justice, education, philosophy, poetry and immortality of soul.

Plato's idea of justice is not discussed in any particular chapter. The idea of justice is to be perceived in the whole book. To Plato justice is not like a particular quality of a state or person such as mercy, greatness, courage and knowledge. Justice is the relation of unity among different necessary works, elements or qualities, organizations, parts or classes.

Mainly in primitive time, the theory of equality was not new to Plato (though in a limited way). Rather Plato's proposal of letting women enjoy the equal facilities in the state and social affairs like men in the then male dominated society where women were treated inferior to male counterparts should be considered more noble and liberal.

According to Plato, education will start with the teaching of the truth of theology. The children will be taught this education through mythical stories. But the subject matters of these stories should be presented in a good way. If the characters of gods and heroes are not presented in a proper way, these will have a bad impact on the mind of the children. The character of gods portrayed in any form such as epics, elegies, dramas should be beautifully presented. Because what is beautiful cannot be harmful to the children. The children will be encouraged to show respect to gods, to their parents, and to brothers through stories and writings. In this regard Plato has forbidden reading of Homer and Hesiod. Because in their writing sometimes gods have been presented as angry, laughing and drunkard. These qualities will have a bad effect on the soft mind of the children. The gods should be portrayed in such a way that they are honest and truthful in their word and action.

The things that have been forbidden in 'The Republic' have also been forbidden in 'The Laws'. There will be fixed rules and system for studying literature. No poet will be allowed to write anything against the state, justice and norms. What the state idealizes should be reflected in the writing of the poet. Plato has given much emphasis on comedy than tragedy. Many important things can be understood with laughter through comedy. He also says that tragedy should not be used for education. If any poet writes anything tragic, first he will have to take permission from any state magistrate. In regard of discussing the education process Plato has recommended in the Chapter 10 that a student should be educated as lawyer than a great man. Again in 'The Laws' he has recommended that a student should be brought up a musician and poet rather than a lawyer.

In 'The Laws' he gives more emphasis on the female education. Here also he says that both men and women will have the equal opportunity of education. They will be helped to grow in the open environment of the state. But he was not in support of co-education. However the women will have to do physical exercise, and practice music like men.

The education proposed in 'The Laws' will start from the cradle. The children will be brought up under the supervision of nurses. If the children do not walk in time, there will be slow growth of them. Even the children should be made to play different plays and games for physical development through dancing and music. Plato also says that the children will be taught in different things. They will be made aware of freedom and if it is necessary, punishment may be introduced. When the children cross six years, they will be separated because of their gender identity. In reality the main education of the children will start from this time. The boys will ride on horses and run as the girls do so. Military training will be given preferences. They will exercise for being ideal citizens not for being warriors. Because of this reason in Laws Plato has also proposed to educate the girls as the boys. In the secondary level, the subjects of education will be literature, music and elementary mathematics. In case teaching literature, teaching how to read and write is to be completed. As a result a student will be able to read all traditional writing of Greek literature.

In 'The Laws' he has also given less emphasis on reading poetry. In 'The Laws' he claims that poetry exaggerates the reality. Besides reading poetry the students can be allowed to study some stories. But there can be some harmful elements in a single story. Though Plato has talked about poets, he has said nothing about the historians.

Besides teaching literature, music, and mathematics, the students must be taught physical exercise. The students must be taught physical exercise to protect the state. He has placed much emphasis on physical exercise and military education both in 'The Republic' and 'The laws'. The thing that Plato has missed in 'The Republic' has pointed out in 'The Laws'.

That is the age from16 to 25 is very important. In this period it will be best to teach the students military education.

The theory of education has been being monitored/ supervised/regulated in the last few centuries focusing on the eagerness of the adult students and the building of social life of the student.

On the other hand, Rousseau is the first man who has worked for the betterment of education rejecting the above mentioned trend of education. He has placed more importance on the needs, interests, and the natural development of children than the adults. Rousseau's contribution to the development of education has been compared with the Kopernika Revolution. Rousseau says that children are the creation of nature; they should be brought up under the sole influence of nature. Rousseau has given much emphasis on the totality than individualism in case of education. The individual will sacrifice his interest for the greater benefit of the society.

The children should be educated to save the existence of the society. The experiences gathered from the training will be used for the whole community.

Rousseau's first book Sainte Marie is published in 1740. In this book he has talked about the goals and purposes of education. He says that education is the medium of building of children's mind, creating the ability of judgment and the flourishing of latent talents.

In 'Emile' he has elaborated the theory of education. He became very busy from 1750 to 1762 for the philosophy of education and society. In this time he wrote 'Discourse of political Economy', 'The New Heloise', 'The Social Contract', 'Emile', 'Considerations on the government of Poland'. Among these books 'Emile' is the book on education. His book The 'Discourse of political Economy' is also on education where he has talked about mass education. In 'The New Heloise' he has spoken about family education in the new light.

Rousseau's philosophy is basically based on nature. In the traditional way of education speaks in favor of the claim that the human nature is enchanted with both bad and good. The role of education is to change this trend and bring improvements in education. But Rousseau says that human nature is controlled by goodness. The role of education is to separate human being from other forms social activities. He claims that education must be achieved through pure and relevance human nature. So the role of education should be to liberate the children from all restrains and superstitions.

In 'Emile' Rousseau says that national education will be a source for making free man. At the age of 20 Paul will learn what he should do, nothing more. When Paul starts reading, I will advise him to read his country. When he is at his teens, he will learn everything of his province. At the age of 15 he will know about history. At the age of 16 he will learn about law. But no personality has been found who can be followed. In 'Emile', Rousseau points out parents as the natural teacher of the children. Here the education, a children gets even from an illiterate father is much better than the education he gets from any other famous teachers in the world. Regarding home tutor he follows the Calvinistic Geneva theory. Here he says that children must be educated. Girls will learn from their mothers and boys from their fathers. This education is a sort of compromise between the traditional education of Greek and the traditional house tutoring practice in the autocratic state.

These human qualities originate from the emotions interest and excitement. So, this should be kept in mind while designing the education policy of a country. The main precondition of Rousseau's theory of nature is to try to understand the difference between boys and girls. According to Rousseau, this opposite characteristics of boys and girls become very conspicuous in their adolescent time; and this is the main basis which demands the distinct sort of education for men and women. To support his idea, he says that the male children will acquire knowledge of the world with the relevance of all other things to be a complete human being. On the other hand, the female children will achieve education to be a complete wife and mother.

Every human being is distinct in their psychological structure and because of this difference there are different sorts of necessaries and demands found in them. The tastes and emotions of every human beings changes time to time. Rousseau has proposed age based education theory focusing on this difference.

The basic trait of Greek educational system is proper combination. So we can see the successful amalgamation of different ideas from other countries in Greek thinking. As a result its utility has influenced the modern Philosophy of education crossing time and boarder. Plato's Philosophy of education was specially written as a work plan to build up his own nation. Education for citizenship and leadership has worked as a source of inspiration of his Philosophy of education. His Philosophy of education has secured and important place in the modern democratic social system as it has been directed for citizenship. So this Philosophy of education is also useful in modern time if it is adapted to the current social ideas and moralities. His Philosophy of education is also based on Psychology. Storytelling and sports have been given priority in his practical learning methodology. These two principles have also been accepted in modern times. Though there is diversity in his proposed curriculum, it is done in a conservative way. He has put special emphasis on logic. He has not put importance on flourishing of other mental qualities and life growth. As a result, discord is seen between his aim of education and his proposed curriculum. Though his Philosophy of education is ideal, there is a problem in application. Educationist and thinker George Kennedy has commented on the evaluation of Plato's Philosophy of education: "Plato's fame in the history of education rests on his Utopian plan for education and not on his work as practical teacher in the Academy". That means Plato is famous only for his theoretical Philosophy of education not for application. (Roy, 1989, p. 619)

Rousseau has given a hint of a new education policy. He said, a children mixes up in nature very actively and thus he learns. He said about it "Let him know nothing because you have told him but because he has learnt it himself, let him not be taught science, let him discover it." This policy is now called the inventory policy. (Uddin and Das, 2006, p. 258)

He criticized vigorously punishment in education. Physical punishment is strictly prohibited in Rousseau's educational policy.

Rousseau is also called the pathfinder of socialist view in education. He emphasized on embroidery. He gave much importance on vocational education for the development of children in the society.

The basis traits of children centered education were inherent as small seeds in Rousseau's Philosophy of education. This small inherent seeds have turned into giant trees because of hard labor and attempts of some educationists like Montessori, Francis Parker, John Dewey and Kilpatrick.

Plato and Rousseau's period were different, so their activities happened in different perspective. Therefore, there are some similarities and dissimilarities between them.

Similarities

Both Plato and Rousseau were philosophers, political thinkers and educators. Both of them told about stage or age based education. They emphasized on physical exercise and female education. In this regard Rousseau discouraged higher female education. Both are against applying force in education system of the children and have given importance to teacher's role in educating them.

Both of them were great patriots and played vital role in spreading education among their brethren. They suggested methods for educating children and played pioneering role in implementing their education method in their country. They desired to make their countrymen fit for getting any challenge both from home and abroad. They tried to teach their countrymen enlightened and liberal education, so that they may become good citizens. Their aim was to teach their countrymen irrespective of caste and creed and showed sympathy for both male and female. They preached universal education in their country. Both of them advocated for institutional education patronized by the state.

Dissimilarities

Plato was a versatile genius who gave full attention and spent enough energy in spreading education. He had many disciples. He established an academy which is known all over the world as an ideal educational institution. On the other hand, Rousseau did not establish such a specific school or academy. Rousseau desired that the children should get knowledge from nature and should be brought up in natural atmosphere from where they would get educational elements. Students should be free from any bindings.

In Plato's education system different types of teaching aids such as, statue, symbol etc. were used during the time of teaching. But Rousseau did not prescribe such type of tools.

Plato suggested different ways to educate the children such as through telling stories, play and imitation etc. But Rousseau did not suggest ways like Plato, Rousseau suggested for discovery method.

7.2 Influences on Contemporary and Succeeding Generations

Like Plato, Aristotle also thinks that the most important responsibility of a country is to provide all sorts of necessary helps for the education of the young generation who are the future citizens of the country. In Chapter 7 and 8 of the book 'The Politics', Aristotle has discussed education; and this education will be controlled by the state. It is not the family or the individuals who are responsible for the education rather the state is responsible for it. What will a young citizen learn? In answering this question, there are four subjects mentioned. These are 1) reading and writing, 2) music, 3) physical exercise and 4) drawing. Through reading, writing and drawing the mental development of children is ensured while through physical exercise, the physical qualities of children are developed. There are many similarities between the education theories of Plato and Aristotle. Aristotle has also talked about education for the philosopher king. Aristotle also establishes an institution called Lyceum.

Like Plato Ibn Sina established a school named Maktab. Ibn Sina has placed much emphasis on class education than on individual enterprise education. He has divided education system into two stages: (1) Primary education and (2) Secondary education. In this regard there is a significant similarity between the education theories of Ibn Sina and Plato.

Pestalozzi was influenced by Rousseau's theory of education. When Pestalozzi was 16 years old, 'Emile' was published. As soon the book was published, he read the book and was influenced by the thought and arguments of Rousseau. He has also said in this regard, "My visionary a highly speculative mind was enthusiastically seized by this visionary and speculative book." So there is a lot of similarity between the education theories of Rousseau and Pestalozzi. Both of them are the lovers of humanity. Both of them are sympathetic to humanity; they have worked against the traditional ways of education; and they have considered education as the means of development of the society. Pestalozzi was highly influenced by Rousseau's theory of nature. They advocated that education will be imparted through the natural process according to their demands and interests. Pestalozzi was in favor of exercising control in case of education. His theory of education was more realistic. If he were not born, many things of Rousseau' theories of education would not be implemented.

Like Plato, Raja Ram Mohan Roy started his educational activities by establishing Anglo Hindu School in 1822. The education theory of Raja Ram Mohan Roy and his institutionalized education were from Plato's plan of education.

The era of education has started from the writing of Rousseau. The later thinkers were highly influenced by his theories of education. There is a lot of similarity between the education theory of Rousseau and Froebel. But Froebel has not totally accepted Rousseau's education theory. He is not in favor of avoiding the society. He has given much importance of the social environment on the children. So he is in favor of arranging the school as a reflection of society. This idea has been fully accepted by the modern education systems. Rousseau has totally ignored the role of teacher in education. But Froebel has given importance on the role of teacher. Froebel has removed the shortcomings of the psychological education theory of Pestalozzi. He has very successfully applied psychology in education where he has taken the activeness of children as an education theory. In a word it can be said that the education theory of Froebel is the sole foundation of modern theory of education. Based on Froebel's theory of education, some particular traits of the children have been implemented in education.

The education theory of Vidyasagar is influenced by the education theory of Plato. As Plato has established an academy for the spread of education for the citizens of Athens, Vidyasagar has established many schools and colleges for the spread of education for the people of the Indian Sub Continent. He has given emphasis on mother language. Like Plato, he acknowledged the role of teacher in case of education. We can say that like Plato Vidyasagar followed female education and equal opportunities like men.

The education theory of Rabindranath Tagore is also influenced by the theories of education of Plato and Rousseau. Rabindranath is also a lover of nature. From the childhood Rabindranath hates the education system that is traditional and narrow in nature. The Shantiniketon established in 1901 is transformed into Bishawvaroti University in 1921. The main purpose of this university is to create the environment where every student can flourish themselves through learning activities, study and entertainment. Like Plato he is also in favor of female education. In the article 'Isthree Shikkha/ The Education for Wife' he says that it is possible to empower the women folk if they are properly educated.

The education theory of Russell is also influenced by the education theory of Plato. Russell has divided his education system into two stages. He has also placed importance on the co-education. Russell is in favor of introducing reward and punishment for establishing peace and discipline in the school.

Begum Roquia is one of the very leading famous women who have contributed a lot to the development of female education. There is an indirect influence of Plato on Roquia. Like Plato, Roquia has given importance on equality of education; and she has established many schools for the spread of education. Her writing is the guide for the future generation.

7.3 Role in Planning and Designing the National Education Policy of the Country

Curriculum is the core of education system. So it is expected that national ideology, national goals, and national demands will be reflected in the national curriculum. It is also expected that students' age, merit and lean ability will be of paramount importance in designing the national curriculum. The national curriculum should be based on the existing socio-economic and political conditions, cultural, traditional, and religious beliefs and moralities. So it should reflect all these things. By transforming students' knowledge, attitudes, skills and expected behaviors, the building of skilled, patriotic, self-dependent, morally developed and hard-working citizens is the main concern of education. So the curriculum and syllabus should be designed on the basis of these things; and the textbook should be according to that curriculum and syllabus. As a result, curriculum, syllabus and textbook are of great importance. It should be kept in mind that the true education should be more humane and it should be in favor of flourishing the inquisitiveness, thinking power and creativity of the students.

Different aspects of education curriculum such as the objectives of the education, curriculum, methods, textbook, discipline, teachers and their duties are designed in the light of philosophy. To design a curriculum an outlook is very necessary. This outlook is called philosophy. Again the way or method in which the students will be taught is the issue of philosophy. Philosophy is deeply connected with education. Education is incomplete without philosophical vision.

Now we analyze how much influence the theories of Plato and Rousseau have in planning and designing in our national education policy:

According to the national education policy, the objectives and goals of primary education are to teach the children the concept of right or wrong, discipline, etiquette politeness, inquisitiveness, brotherhood, unity, perseverance, morality, spiritual qualities, secularism and sense of responsibility. The objectives and goals of primary education are also to make the children the lovers of science and culture, and to encourage them to be educated free from superstitions. According to Plato, physical exercise keeps the health fit and music keeps mind fresh. Our education curriculum is directly influenced by the education theory of Plato as it advocates in favor of the physical and mental nourishment of the children. Besides, the objectives of primary education such as the sense of responsibility and discipline, brotherhood are also inherent in the education theory of Plato. Like Plato Rousseau has given much importance on the physical exercise and the health policy in the early age. From this discussion, it can be said that the educational theories of Plato and Rousseau played an important role in making the national education policy in our country.

The vital impact of Philosophy of education of Plato and Rousseau on our national education policy: In planning and designing of our national education policy, the impact of the educational philosophy of Plato and Rousseau is conspicuous. After independence all our education policies are framed which reflect their philosophy of education such as age or stage-based curriculum. Their aim and vision are reflected in our national education policy.

In case of religion and moral education, the purpose of our national education policy is to introduce the students with the main four religions-Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity. The other purposes of religion and moral education are to teach mannerism and morality, and to help building good character. Plato has put much importance on the scientific education. Rousseau is also in favor of scientific education. As a result whatever is related with nature is considered to be the contents of syllabus. They are Physics, chemistry, Botany and zoology. The main work purpose of science is to explore the nature. Science is always working to discover the mysteries of the nature through experiments, observation and logical analysis. It helps human beings to satisfy their inquisitiveness about nature. It also accelerates the speed of human civilization. Only proper scientific education can help the human beings to reach their specific destination. From this discussion, we can say that our national education policy is highly indebted to the education theories of Plato and Rousseau.

Skilled manpower is the pre-requisite for the development of any nation. Plato has advocated for the vocational education for the people who work in the field of production so that these people can lead a comfortable life. Rousseau has given much emphasis on the education of handicraft and vocational education. From this point of view, we can say that the education theories of Plato and Rousseau have significant roles in the national education policy.

These two philosophers are included in the syllabi of all universities and colleges in our country. Their philosophy of education plays an important role in planning and designing the national education policy in the country.

Chapter 8: Findings, Recommendations and Conclusion

Findings

Plato has advocated equal education and freedom of both women and men. On the other hand, Rousseau has discouraged women education and neglected it in his philosophy of education which is not acceptable to the modern man. The male partner must be sure of the fact that the children born of a woman is his children because it will be his heir. Rousseau does not like the idea of a cuckoo living in the nest of a crow. As a result, Rousseau has proposed completely different moral education (Azad, 1992, p. 94). Now days, it is universally assumed that for proper development and up liftmen of a nation, equal participation of both men and women is necessary in evitable.

Plato has talked about teaching music, literature, arts and mathematics while Rousseau has only talked about education of nature. For our mental development and flourishing of art and culture, co-curriculum activities play an important role, which is rightly suggested by Plato. But unfortunately Rousseau has ignored the side.

Plato has admitted the active role of teacher in education. On the other hand, though Rousseau has not admitted the active role of teacher in education, in the analysis of his novel Emile it is found that the protagonist Emile several times searches Rousseau in case of difficulty. That means Rousseau has been presented to Emile as a teacher. Though it seems contradictory to Rousseau's philosophy of education, intact has admitted the active role of teacher in educating the children.

Plato and Rousseau were against applying force in education system of the children. The student should not be punished. Both of them discouraged punishment of students by the teachers which is highly appreciated and accepted by almost every nation of the world. Both of philosophers are the greatest protagonists of human freedom.

They suggested that education should not be based on memory. Rather it would be inventive. No fear, but joy would be the matter of attraction of teaching. This suggestion is also appreciable and attentive which is accepted by the modern world.

They suggested that education should be for