Causes And Impacts Of Sexual Harassment Sociology Essay

Published Date: 23 Mar 2015

This study provides an insight into the connection between a male dominated organisation such as the Fire and Rescue Service and sexual harassment. It shall evaluate and quantify the effects that sexual harassment has on women fire fighters, the impact of legislated polices against sexual harassment and what the FRS are doing to prevent this cruel act.

It is studied that women, who work in a predominant male environment, are at risk of sexual harassment; this is reconciled by the presence of male dominated cultural norms. Sexual harassment implicates negative health consequences for sufferers and the organisation involved also faces repercussions of their own from this social evil.

It is evident that within the route of society, social categories are often fashioned within groupings, which often present unseen barriers. The impact of pressure throughout society forces many individuals to create a persona that may not be true to their beliefs but one that conforms into a socially accepted position.

Through social processes which many individuals hold, they tend to often catalogue individuals quickly into positions that often affect their lives, these judgements are often made due to indoctrinated perceptions that are fashioned by society's uniform skeletal attitudes.

The impact of a gendered identity within the Fire and Rescue Service creates cultures in which hegemonic masculinity is reinforced and maintained, it allows a dominant male position to be held and controlled. Due to the nature of masculinity ingrained within formal and informal activities of the Fire and Rescue Service, the acceptance of women as subordinated subjects is very complex.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to Mr. K Peek, Miss. T Bradford and Mr. S Cable; who throughout this project have given their valuable time, advice, criticism and corrections.

I would also like to express the deepest appreciation to a fellow course mate and close friend; Miss N Jones for supporting me and keeping me sane through this project. My dearest James and caring family for their support and encouragement during my time at university.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….i

Chapter 2 ii

List of Figures

List of Tables

Chapter 1: Introduction

This research study examined the causes, impacts and ramifications of sexual harassment in the Fire and Rescue Service, focusing primarily on women as they are the central focus of this social malevolence.

The thesis begins with a brief history of the Fire and Rescue Service, a review of relevant literature including related legislation, a discussion of significant cases, and an overview of the fear of reprisal.

1.1 - The Scale of the problem

Sexual harassment has been evident in the Fire and Rescue Service since the sanctioning of the equality act in 1964 which allowed females to pursue careers in the Fire and Rescue Service. An operational career in the Fire and Rescue Service has always been perceived as a masculine role; fighting fires and being involved in operational activities, representing "an example of the masculine standards of aggressive heterosexuality, physical and mental strength and stoic discipline." (Baigent; 2001) Altered perceptions of the Fire and Rescue Service; conventional, cultural and even educational often presume a stereo typed identity for fire fighters to be, "strong, masculine and tough" idealist perceptions of this dominant alpha male figure often fashion barriers for females entering and feeling "accepted" within this male dominated organisation, disregarding the fact that female fire fighters perform the same duties as their male counterparts.

Currently there are 46 Fire and Rescue Services in England employing 45,016 fire fighters; 43,632 of which are men and only 1,384 are female. (31 March 2007 - Fire Research Technical Report 8/2008) This makes fire fighting one of the most sex segregated professions in the world. Statistics from The Baigent Report 2006, show that 53.4% of female fighters report that they had been harassed.

1.2 - General Aim of study

The foundation behind the selected topic, related to the facts that although females have served in operational roles within the Fire and Rescue Service for almost 50 years now (UK Fire Services); reviewing current cases in the media, it is evident that they have not been fully accepted into this largely assumed male role. The fundamental purpose of this research project was to take an in depth look into the literature and secondary data that is already available in relation to sexual harassment on women in the Fire and Rescue Service and to present an overview of the current state of knowledge and determine what the causes and the impacts of sexual harassment are, make a judgement whether Sexual Harassment is still evident in this society, despite relevant laws and efforts such as 'positive action' to diminish these acts of hostility.

The primary aim of the research project was to identify based on current literature the nature and prevalence of sexual harassment within the Fire and Rescue Services.

1.3 - Specific Objectives

To identify the prevalence of sexual harassment in the Fire and Rescue Service.

To analyse the nature and causes of sexual harassment in the Fire and Rescue Service.

To examine the impacts created with sexual harassment in the Fire and Rescue Service.

To examine if 'positive action' has a positive impact on prevention and protection of females within the Fire and Rescue Service.

To examine if 'CLG targets' affected male staff's opinions of women being recruited?

To identify measures and precautions that can be implemented to address the problem of sexual harassment within the Fire and Rescue Service.

Methodology

The study focused on each aspect surrounding the problem separately, investigating each factor and the subsequent consequences that they fashion. The information is then linked to relevant cases relating to the Fire and Rescue Service and their agenda to prohibit this difficulty and to form an overall impartial analysis of the findings.

After consideration of the difficulty to gain ethical clearance to carry out primary data due to the invasive nature of the study and also with a limited time frame, the study interprets secondary research data to be more efficient. The information used within the study has been outsourced from related research to the study. Benefits of secondary data are that it is already collated, downsides to the use of secondary data is the possibility of manipulated and biased data by the researcher. An array of secondary data sources were used within the study, such as journals, literature, books and web pages.

The report identifies and examines the present existing literature available on sexual harassment to provide an impression of the current state of knowledge. During research it was noticed that although various aspects of sexual harassment are well documented, others are quite under researched; such as exact figures and the full stories behind the cases presented in the media.

The term 'Woman' and 'Female' are used interchangeably throughout; however both have the same meanings within this study.

1.5 - Summary

Sexual Harassment often has a serious impact on the individual involved and the organisation where this malevolence occurs. The evidence provided in this report strongly suggests sexual harassment is still largely evident within the Fire and Rescue Services and is likely to occur until the organisation becomes less male dominated.

Chapter 1

Chapter 2 reviews and critiques the relevant literature relating to the Fire and Rescue Service and Sexual Harassment.

Chapter 3 interprets, presents the findings and to draws conclusions from the research.

1.4 - Main Achievements

The main achievements of the study are…

Chapter 2: Review of Literature

The practise of sexual harassment has been dominant for centuries and can be traced back to the 1970's in North America; sexual coercion was a well established characteristic of chattel slavery by African-American women devoid of the fortification of the law.

Nevertheless it wasn't until 1986 in the UK when the first successful case identified sexual harassment to be a form of sexual discrimination, under the Employment Protection Act. (Hodges Aeberhard; 2001)

Many activists have authoritatively expressed their opinions about sexual harassment, but in 1980, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) defined the act as;

"Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favours, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature constitutes sexual harassment when submission to or rejection of this conduct explicitly or implicitly affects an individual's employment, unreasonably interferes with an individual's work performance or creates an intimidating, hostile or offensive work environment."(Wall; 2001)

Key elements found in most definitions include:

The conduct of a sexual nature, and other conduct based on sex affecting the dignity of women and men, which is unwelcome, unreasonable, and offensive to the recipient.

A person's rejection of, or submission to, such conduct is used explicitly or implicitly as a basis for a decision which affects that person's job.

Conduct that creates an intimidating, hostile or humiliating working environment for the recipient.

Legal and Sociological understandings

Interpretations of sexual harassment are fashioned by "legal consciousness" or with the aid of cultural schemes guiding the understanding and use of law. (Merry 1990; Ewick and Silbey 1998)

Individuals often have varied perceptions on what constitutes to sexual harassment, this varies among different societies and social groupings; this can potentially cause issues both legally and sociologically, as it causes difficulty interpreting if sexual harassment has occurred. Behaviour is more likely to be seen as harassment if there is a large power difference between the victim and the co-conspirator. Many forms of the act may be easily identifiable; such as kissing and touching, while other kinds such as verbal and physical conduct may not. Certain behaviours which may seem inappropriate in some cultures may be regarded as normal social practise in others. A kiss on the cheek in greeting is considered normal behaviour, while in other cultures; this may be considered a sexual advance. What is acceptable in some workplaces, such as sexually suggestive calendars or posters, may not be tolerable in others.

Implementing an effective sexual harassment policy in an organisation and strict enforcement punishments for offenders is the rightful solution to the problem.

It has been identified that 50% of women are sexually harassed in the workplace and "fewer than 20% of these women label themselves as having been sexually harassed." (Magley; 1999, p390) Women can be hesitant to identify their experiences, as they don't feel that they are serious enough. This is a large contributing factor to why sexual harassment is still present today as the problem can't be prevailed if it goes unreported. This also suggests that present statistical data on sexual harassment is widely inaccurate as large amounts are unknown.

2.1.1 - Impacts

Sexual Harassment usually has a negative impact on the victim concerned, potentially leaving them with long term psychological effects.

Suffers of this social evil may often experience illness, loss of self confidence, psychological damage and often feel intimidated, ashamed, angry and humiliated. They are also likely to face work place problems such as decreased performance, lower job satisfaction, high absenteeism and often find it difficult to continue working in such circumstances as it can create a hostile, offensive and unhealthy environment, which can occasionally lead to the victim being unable to carry out their job effectively and can even cause resignation.

Negative outcomes of sexual harassment such as anxiety, fear of retaliation, retaliation and depression are often exacerbated by victim reporting and that reporting may not in fact be a 'reasonable' course of action for most targets. (Bergman)

According to the National Council for Research on Women; due to sexual harassment, women are 9 times more likely than men to quit their jobs, 5 times more likely to transfer, and 3 times more likely to lose jobs. (The Webb Report; 1994)

Sexual harassment threatens the fundamental constitutional basis of freedom and equality for all, which needs to be abolished from society altogether. The women's liberation movement has been spoilt by this act of discrimination which continues to haunt society.

2.2 - History of the Fire and Rescue Service

Historically, the fire fighting profession was dominated by white males until the equality act was introduced in 1964. The first female operational fire fighter in the UK joined the London Fire Brigade in 1982. Primarily many male fire fighters strongly resisted the introduction of people who did not fit their ideal perception of a fire fighter, especially women.

Almost 50 years have passed since the equality act was conceded and the Fire and Rescue Services today are still largely a white male predominant service. Currently women represent a meagre 4% of the UK's fire fighting profession; however this is an improvement from 3% in 2006, which makes operational fire fighting one of the most gender segregated occupations in the UK. Sexual harassment is often more prevalent in professions where there is an unequal sex ratio; such as the Fire and Rescue Service, 'Fire stations once boasted a fraternity house atmosphere; they were "homes away from home" for men.'

The HMFSI conducted a review into Equality and Fairness (1999) and results suggested that generally the views and opinions of service staff were 'institutionally sexist' and it was largely believed that Women didn't belong in operational roles in the Fire and Rescue Service.

Diagrams taken from ????? show the proportions of female fire fighters between 2002 and 2012.

Fire and Rescue Service - Operational Statistics Bulletin for England 2010-11

This diagram illustrates a slight increase of female fire fighters each year; from 1.7% in 2002 to 4.3 % in 2012, this is a significant improvement however they are still considerably low in proportion to figures.

This diagram illustrates the ratio of males to female fire fighters, each year the figures for females are subsequently rising, however at the lowest capacity of males in 2012, 95.7% would be considered a very large percentage.

This diagram illustrates that only 2 member of staff resigned due to harassment or discrimination.

2.2.1 - CLG targets

A report was published by The Audit Commission in 2009, on the deficit of women and ethnic minorities in the Fire and Rescue Service, stating that the 'lack of diversity significantly reduces the services capability to contact and inform different communities about the risks of fire'."Even where the proportion of female fire fighters and staff from minority ethnic communities is increasing, numbers remain very low and are not representative of the communities they serve."

This was highlighted in the latter national Equality and Diversity Strategy for Fire and Rescue Services.

Individual Fire and Rescue Service's have introduced proactive measures to promote the inclusion and recruitment of women linked to the Home Office CLG targets relating to the percentages of women in operational roles. Despite these measures there are still relatively low numbers of women working within an operational capacity, less than 1% of women in the whole time operational service and just over 1% in the retained service but the EOTG concluded that a target of representation of anything less than 20% by 2009 would not make the service attractive to women. Women fire fighters would continue to find themselves isolated on fire station watches. (E.GUY; Home Office; 2000)

Recruitment of women (whole-time and retained operational staff)

1 April 2002: 4% of uniformed staff (excluding control) should be women;

1 April 2004: 9% of uniformed staff (excluding control) should be women;

1 April 2009:15% of uniformed staff (excluding control) should be women.

2.3 - The Law; Sexual Harassment at work

Sexual Harassment was not regarded as a discrete injury prior to the campaign for its inclusion as a form of sex discrimination under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, the change in the law has done more than simply create new legal rights.

Sexual harassment law is of particular interest to feminist theorists confronting the capacity of law to promote cultural change. This feminist intervention into the law has affected the cultural meaning of interactions between men and women in the workplace, even when the new meanings have not translated into legal victories.

The legal claim for sexual harassment is notable for its distinctively feminist origins. Born in the mid-1970s, the term was invented by feminist activists, given legal content by feminist litigators and scholars, and sustained by a wide-ranging body of scholarship generated largely by feminist academics. Sexual harassment is the quintessential feminist harm - in Catharine MacKinnon's words, the first time in history ... that women have defined women's injuries in a law. 

The goal of legal feminism has been to fit the cause of action to women's experience in the workplace. As a phenomenon, sexual harassment is virtually gender-specific: unlike other types of sex discrimination suits where male plaintiffs frequently complain of gender-based injury, the great majority of sexual harassment plaintiffs are women, and their complaints rarely have a precise analogue in the experience of men. 

2010 Protection of Women against Sexual Harassment at the Workplace -

Under the Equality Act 2010 - All Fire and Rescue Service Establishments have a legal duty to promote equality. This act covers; age, disability, gender reassignment, pregnancy and maternity, race religion/belief, sex and sexual orientation. The aim of this act is to eliminate unlawful discrimination, harassment and victimisation.

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 - The act doesn't distinctively state sexual harassment; however it states that it is against the law to prohibit employment based on gender, race, belief or national origin.

Subsequent codes have defined sexual harassment and the US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission is responsible for the administration of policies prohibiting sexual harassment in the job place.

The Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) was established in 1975, and ever since has been apprehensive with sexual harassment in the workplace. The commission has used its abilities under the Sex Discrimination Act (SDA) to support many employment tribunal cases and has funded many claims for sexual harassment towards women, to primarily develop current case law and raise awareness of the issue through campaigns and lobbying.

Quid pro quo & Hostile Environment

Sexual harassment can be categorised as either quid pro quo or a hostile environment; Quid pro quo is a demand for sexual favours for career advantages for the employee. Hostile environment in the workplace would include sexual conversations, off colour jokes, sexually explicit pictures, and inappropriate touching and gestures.

2.4 - Sexual harassment in the Fire and Rescue Service

It isn't uncommon for staff in a highly respected profession such as the Fire and Rescue Service to be caught in the middle of acts of discrimination and intolerance to others. Sexual Harassment can destroy the lives and careers of those targeted and in this day and age where everyone has the right to be treated equally it should not be condoned.

It has been uncovered that as many as 85% of fire fighters have been exposed to some form of sexual harassment during their career; however it is apparent that less than 5% of the victims reported or 'blow the whistle' on their experiences. (Gutek & Koss; 1993)

Carrying out the role of an operational fire fighter often exposes individuals to dangerous situations which can contribute to stress, however adding the strain of harassment and a hostile work environment can often isolate the victim and undermine member camaraderie, which is a fundamental part of survival within the Fire and Rescue Service.

Public lawsuits involving the Fire and Rescue Service are commonly well publicised and due to the severity often reflect negatively on the industry, potentially costing the service their reputation, credibility and community status. Funds from lawsuits are better spent elsewhere and make the community question the very integrity of the department they pay for and support.

The Fire and Rescue Service has been described as one of the last bastions of white, male, laddish culture, where sexual discourse about women using stereotyped terms is prevalent. (Kehily; 1997)

"In the old days, there was delineation between when you go to work and what you do outside of work. At work you conducted yourself in a certain way, but with longer work days and more casual dress codes, particularly among young people, there has been a blurring of the lines between what happens at work and what happens in your social life," (Mr. Telman)

"We spend so much of our lives in the workplace, which has become less and less formal like much of society." (D L. Hoover)

Comments from victims who didn't report the harassment said 'they didn't want to be labelled as a trouble maker and didn't feel that a positive outcome was possible', 'they didn't want to be "singled out" further. Women who have took their case to caught have usually out gone years of sexual harassment before they have decided to take legal action.

Research suggests that sexual harassment is not just a problem in the UK; in 1995 surveys were conducted on Women in the U.S Fire and Rescue Service. 551 Female staff were asked about their experiences with sexual harassment and other forms of job discrimination and 88% responded saying that they had been subject to some form of sexual harassment at some point in their fire service careers. 70% of these women said they were latterly experiencing harassment in the duration of the study.

Out of the 88% harassed only 1/3 had had positive outcomes, where an investigation was performed and the harasser was disciplined. 26% were retaliated against for reporting the incident.

2.4.1 - Whistle blowing

Ignoring problems of sexual harassment can cost the average company up to £6.7 million a year in low productivity, low morale, and employee turnover and absenteeism, not including litigation or other legal costs. Following clear and proactive formal policies against sexual harassment in the workplace is one way to prevent lawsuits and drops in productivity and efficiency.

According to social scientists and psychologists; the fire and rescue service industry is a 'hyper focused reflection of a community's cultural mix and bias.' When the mix of men, women, black, white, Jews, Muslims, Catholics and other cultures it's not surprising when they result in some form of prejudice is engaged.

It has been observed that many women and people of colour leave the Fire Service, frequently in the midst of successful careers, in order to avoid the daily harassment, isolation and scrutiny. In what is already a high stress profession, these added negative factors can take their toll. Results indicate that that fear of retaliation and appraisal play the largest role.

'Diversity in the workplace creates room for new ideas, as well as the possibility of increased conflict.'

Different opinions have been expressed regarding the status of women in fire fighting profession.

Male operational group manager in Derbyshire expressed:"Women bring a different dimension to the fire service, as they can appeal to other women about safety in the home, in a way that men can't".

Woman fire fighter:"Men would threaten to transfer off their own watch if a woman was set to join. Things have improved considerably over the last few years but the fire services should not become complacent about equality. I work with some great people, men and women. I also work with some dinosaurs."

"The majority of fire fighters are in the FBU, so the union takes its role of combating discrimination seriously,

Woman, non- uniformed position:"Because women are in a very small minority, the infrastructure does not change, and the women can experience dreadful isolation."

Woman, fire fighter:"Much of the harassment occurred when I was on probation and felt I could not speak out, I did attempt to speak to my officers; all of them shrugged off my appeals for help. I want to keep my job. It's clear that those who seek legal recourse can't come back to work. I didn't want to get someone suspended or fired. I just wanted it to stop."

In 1984, Toledo was under a federal court order to hire more minority fire fighters - to match the city's racial demographics

Read more at http://www.toledoblade.com/Police-Fire/2013/03/04/Woman-hired-as-firefighter-in-84-broke-barriers.html#hzJoDrlSfxRVrsuw.99 

2.4.2 - Challenges females face

As previously mentioned due to social stereo typing, a career in the Fire and Rescue Service is often perceived as a males role and non traditional for women. Bradley identified characteristics which were associated with typical roles suitable for females. 'Clean, safe, physically undemanding, repetitive, boring and lacking in mobility' (1989; P.9) this idealist perception that females were only suited to office roles created difficulties for females who wanted to break this stereo typing barrier and carry out roles in "masculine" professions such as the Fire and Rescue Service. In the U.K Fire and Rescue Services females have carried out operational posts for almost 50 years; along this journey there have been many difficult adjustments within the service.

tradition, formalised, para-military relationships and discrimination.

"Women are not getting recruited and hired because of an occupational culture that is exclusionary and unequal employment practices in recruiting, hiring, assigning and promoting women generally and women of colour in particular in fire service,"

Moccio added.

USA: 79.7% of women survey respondents reported problems with ill-fitting equipment. These problems involved (gloves 57.8%) boots (46.8%), coats (38.9%), helmets (28.4%), and breathing masks (25.6%).

One major hurdle to entrance into fire fighting for women was the lack of facilities. The immediate problem of sleeping quarters and bathing areas had to be solved before women could participate fully in fire fighting as an occupation and as a culture. Communal showers and open bunk halls were designed for men only. Today, although most stations are now designed to accommodate fire fighters of both genders, some female fire fighters still face issues related to their gender.

One of the greatest difficulties experienced by most women in the fire service is ill-fitting protective gear. Gear designed for men often will not fit correctly. In an environment where uncovered skin can be almost instantly covered in full-thickness burns, it is essential that protective gear fit properly.

According to a study at Cornell University, "the under-representation of women in fire fighting is an alarming inequity that needs to be immediately addressed," said Francine Moccio, director of the institute and co-author of the report, "A National Report Card on Women in Firefighting," which was presented at the International Association of Women in Fire and Emergency Services meeting, April 24 in Phoenix, Arizona.

In a survey conducted by Women in the Fire Service in 1995, 551 women in fire departments across the U.S were asked about their experiences with sexual harassment and other forms of job discrimination. Eighty-eight percent of fire service women responding had experienced some form of sexual harassment at some point in their fire service careers or volunteer time. Nearly seventy percent of the women in the survey said they were experiencing ongoing harassment at the time of the study. Of the 339 women who said they had complained about harassment, only a third (115 women) listed only positive outcomes: investigating/taking care of the problem, and disciplining the harasser. Twenty-six percent said they were retaliated against for reporting the incident.

The gender neutral term "fire fighter" has been used since 1902, replacing "fireman", as the term excluded women from the profession, however it is still common for the term to be used.

Stand Down Activities

Fire stations are generally well equipped for leisure pursuits[57], as one fire-fighter observed: 'it's like a lads night in'.  How this time is spent varies from watch to watch, but there is usually one communal activity that is engaged in by all fire-fighters.  Interestingly, two females expressed dissatisfaction with the preferred stand-down activities on their watch, with one describing how she was one of 3 fire-fighters, on a watch of 18, who didn't enjoy football.  In terms of fitting into the watch, she noted that '…if you don't like football…you've really got to try hard.' (FFF9).  Similarly, another female felt slightly outside of watch culture, as she couldn't appreciate the communal stand-down activities of cards and golf, '…It doesn't suit me, I'm not really into playing cards for two hours but I will

sit and have a quick game, more for the sake of fitting in than for the enjoyment of playing you know.' (FFF5).  This particular female came from a smaller watch (of 7 people) and described how the culture was one where everyone liked to be in the same place at the same time.  She found this atmosphere slightly claustrophobic and felt that she would be better suited to a bigger watch (where there is more opportunity to dilute and do your own thing).  The actual physical layout of the station may have some bearing on this, indeed the smaller station had no separate rooms[58] and a large 'banquet' style table, perhaps inducing a forced sociability.  In contrast one of the bigger stations visited had separate rooms, as well as a 'quiet room' and a mess room furnished with about 12 small tables designed to seat one or two fire-fighters, thus reducing the need to constantly engage with your fellow co-workers.  Ultimately, Cockburn argues that male worker's engagement in certain social activities positions women outside of 'the boys club' (1991). 

Positive Action

in light of the fact that the Fire Service is not an obvious career choice for women, the positive action open days, which have been held by a number of Brigades, seem to be an ideal way of introducing females to the Service in a non-threatening way.  However, there seemed to be a commonly held belief that the Fire Service has placed too much emphasis on Fairness and Equality policies in recent years.  Among young and old male fire-fighters alike there was a feeling that white males were being 'frozen out' by the service.  This is typified in the following statement: '…okay we're wanting equality em, people's rights…but there were special open days for ethnic minorities and women, there was nothing for the straight hetero male, you see what I mean?  And this is people outside em, you know, generating their thoughts and telling us "god they're no wanting straight heterosexual men" and it was along thae lines for a while you know?' (MFF6).  There was no recognition that the purpose of such open days was to redress the gender imbalance in the Fire Service and to make it more representative of the community it serves, or indeed that certain sections of society may need extra encouragement to apply in the first instance.  This fire-fighter's choice of words 'straight, heterosexual men', implies that he was referring to a certain kind of male, the type that has until very recently, had a monopoly on jobs in the service. 

The open days created discontent, as for many they symbolised the exclusion of men from this sphere.  As well as this many felt that positive action (or as many called it, 'positive discrimination') had gone too far, resulting in a situation where, as one fire-fighter put it '…if you're male you've got less chance of getting in than a female or an ethnic.' (MFF3).  There is a feeling that the Service is overly concerned with 'numbers' and that this is actually disadvantaging the white male '…I wouldnae like tae think that my son couldnae get a chance of getting in ken?.' (MFF3).  In terms of whether this was a commonly held belief among men in the Fire Service, he said that he estimated that roughly 95% felt this way (but that many of them could not speak openly about their beliefs for fear of negative repercussions).  The level of discontent these open days created resulted in their demise, as one female fire-fighter said '…there's too many people who think that we're trying to have an all female Fire Service, which you know is quite naïve to think that.  But it's just, you've obviously got to go with the majority and you've obviously got to satisfy most people so, unfortunately, that kind of thing has…died a death really.' (FFF7) 

Cases

A firewoman given a payout after suffering a campaign of sexual harassment has moved home across the country after village gossips 'ruined her life'. Kate Ellis, 48, launched a sex discrimination case against her fire service over vile taunts and pestering for sex from firemen. But she and her husband effectively became prisoners in their own home because neighbours continually sniped at her in the shop and pub. On one occasion at the fire station she was in her underwear preparing to change into her uniform when she realised four colleagues were leering at her through a window. She was accused of 'flaunting herself', and a fireman's wife left her in tears by abusing her in the village shop, saying: 'I don't want you changing down to your G-string in front of my husband.' But she told a tribunal she had a one-night stand with her boss Mark Butler, 44, in August 2003, thinking that 'becoming a notch on his bedpost' would stop the abuse. Instead it compounded the problem, with Mr Butler boasting about his conquest, and word soon spreading among villagers. A fireman badgered her for sex after a Christmas party, colleagues ostracised her and refused to travel with her to jobs and her car was vandalised. Another fireman's wife asked her what the fire chief was like in bed. Just two days into the employment tribunal in Reading, the Hampshire Fire and Rescue Service settled the case for an undisclosed figure. Mrs Ellis, who went on to join the ambulance service, said village supporters of the firemen had made her previous home unbearable.

The settlement of a contentious sexual harassment lawsuit in the Phoenix Fire Department has prompted one city councilman to demand an investigation. firefighter Julie Simpson, whose 2011 Federal sexual harassment lawsuit The allegations of harassment include placing Simpson's uniforms in a freezer, feeding her a meal that included a cooked sponge, calling her an assortment of vulgar names, and the following statements:

"it was nice not having a girl in the station";

"we want a guy on the truck, so would you leave":

"men are more mechanical, and are therefore better drivers than women";

"he's a guy, he can figure it out";

"you can't do the job, your just too small and you're a female";

"guys don't want girls in the station because of women like you";

"you're the kind of woman who should be a secretary or nurse, not a fire fighter";

"you're clothes are too tight, they [i.e., Plaintiff's male counterparts in the Fire Department] will just look at you as someone to [explicative]…";

"you're too small and you're a female, you should be off the truck and working as a secretary";

"you talk too much, guys don't like to hear girls talk."

2.5 - Theories on Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment can take both traditional and non-traditional, but power is a consistent element in descriptions of sexual harassment, creating a focal point for the current research.

The International Labour Organisation has documented that generally the act of sexual harassment doesn't relate to the biological differentiations between men and women but rather, it relates to gender or social roles accredited to men and women in social and economic life. The perceptions about male and female sexuality in society can often lead to unbalanced male/female authority relationships.

2.5.1 - Power

Sexual harassment is often a sign of control, power and authority rather than actual sexual desire and is often a face of aggression and hostility. The associates of this social evil often want to degrade, humiliate and intimidate their victim into a submissive state. "Sexual harassment is inextricably linked with power and takes place in societies which often treat women as sex objects and second class citizens." (Martha Langelan, Back Off! How to Confront and Stop Sexual Harassment and Harassers; July 1993)

Catherine MacKinnon, a scholar on sexual harassment, explained in 1979; at its most basic level, sexual harassment is the "unwanted imposition of sexual requirements in a relationship of unequal power." Perpetrators leverage the power they have based on their gender or sexual status to gain or maintain power in the workplace. (Catherine A. MacKinnon, the Sexual Harassment of Working Women, 9-10(1979).

MacKinnon went on to explain that a woman struggling to establish credibility in a workplace setting "can be swept off balance by a reminder that she can be raped, fondled, or subjected to repeated sexual demands." Her resulting anxiety, fear or vulnerability prevents a woman from "feeling, or being viewed as, the equals of their male counterparts in the workplace." (Catherine A. MacKinnon, the Sexual Harassment of Working Women, 9-10 (1979)

social isolation as a mechanism linking harassment to gender nonconformity and women's authority, particularly in male-dominated work settings.

racism, prejudice, intolerance, jealousy, sexual tension, overt and covert harassment, a hostile working environment, and homophobia and include damaging personal equipment, violating existing state and federal laws, intolerance of others' beliefs, poor leadership and management, lack of policy, nonexistent discipline, and institutional silence (no one seeing or witnessing any inappropriate conduct). 

2.5.3 - Economic motivations

Sexual harassment may be used by men to maintain their competitive advantage in the workplace; reserving the most highly rewarded work for men and branding women workers in these areas as incompetent or unsuitable for the job.

2.5.5 - Gender and Power Impacts on Society

Harassers use it to police or maintain traditional gender roles and to promote gender conformity; 'keeping women in their place'.

Women in non traditional jobs may be subjected to baiting, in the form of sexual inquiries, jokes, remarks, or innuendoes. Such behaviour has "the effect of reminding a woman that she is viewed as object of sexual derision rather than as a credible co worker." (Kathryn Abrams, Gender Discrimination and the Transformation of Workplace Norms, Vanderbilt L. Rev., vol. 42, 1207-1209; 1989)

Gender impact on society must be assessed to gain complete understanding of the influences gender has. These could be recognised by the understanding of gender relations throughout society with the competition for a range of social resources such as, wealth, status, political prestige and power.

It is this competition for power and prestige through ideological consent that allows us to recognise these influences. Social constructionism may allow us to interpret the sex roles we associate with males and females, but it does not analyse how these stereotyped roles came to be associated with the sexes. It is the evaluation of hegemonic masculinity that demonstrates the importance and effects of dominance and power of gender in society.

Hegemonic masculinity refers to the dominant form of masculinity within the gender hierarchy. Connell (1987) describes it as "The configuration practice which embodies the currently accepted answer to the problem of legitimacy of patriarchy, which guarantees the dominant position of men and the subordination of women".

Examples of this can be seen in the simplest of activities, such as men holding doors open for women. This activity, although seen as courteous, allows the man to control when and how the female walks through the door, and the acceptance that this is what men should do reinforces their prestige and status, allowing the male to 'look after' the 'unable' female. Although "The public face of hegemonic masculinity is not necessarily what powerful men are, but what sustains their power and what large numbers of men are motivated to support" (Connell, 1987).

A hegemonic male can sometimes be stereotyped as the ideal male, the alpha male who possesses physical prowess, heroic status, a definitive heterosexuality and therefore power,

This power is then demonstrated to dominate over not only women, but male groups of less power. Gender could be seen to be the underpinning base to the distribution of power wealth and status towards men, and this encourages characteristics such as ambition, strength, drive, aggressiveness, and self reliance for men, but is overwhelmingly discouraged in women, and it is this that encourages us to permit this behaviour.

This is a clear demonstration of the power of this male position. A position of full heterosexual masculinity, a position holding hegemonic power over other subspecialist roles, the sense of prestige because others are unable to complete this role.

"The interplay between different forms of masculinity is an important part of how patriarchal social order works" (Connell, 1987). History tells us that the man with status, power and wealth had ownership of property and the means of production, consequently 'owning' the right to superior ranking in the hierarchy of masculinities as Connell describes. Once this is accepted in society and other see this, his power becomes hegemonic. Hartmann (1976) describes this patriarchy as "men's domination of each other ... a set of social relations in which there are hierarchical relations between men, and solidarity among them, which enable them to control women".

The power belonging to males and their dominance is further accentuated by 'emphasised femininity'. Which Connell (1987) suggests is "defined around the compliance with this subordination and is orientated to accommodating the interests and desires of men".

The acceptance by women that this is ok increases the hegemonic power held by men and reiterates the belief of consent in their role, this automatically subordinates women, assigning the men the form of power they require.

Power then is key when looking at gender in the context of social roles. The dominance of male status and power and how this subordinates different cultural groups, creates situations where structure dictates the links between people and institutions. This power is most successfully deployed by constructing ideals of masculine and feminine behaviour to which we are encouraged to aspire.

The affects that gender has on society can been seen wherever we look, and the frameworks we follow ensure these definitive positions in society are clear and powerful.

2.5.6 - Societal perspective

The societal perspective considers the collective view of the role that women play, becoming a parent and having to support a family. (Larwood & Gutek; 1987)

Powell & Graves propose that traditionally a woman's place in society was to stay at home, have children and to look after the house. (2003)

"Women's roles therefore include bearing children; to feed them and other members of the family; to clothe people; to care for the small, the sick, the elderly and the disabled; to be responsible for the education of children; and to take care of the home. (Alvesson & Due Billing; 1997)

2.5.7 - Organisational Violation

Organisational culture often plays a fundamental role in sexual harassment. Bullying and physical violence can be seen as a figure of 'organisational violation' where the culture of an organisation makes it feasible for individuals to be subject to abuse or with disregard.

Hierarchical and managerial authority is necessary to identify how such a culture develops and persists. As contempt and impertinence within an organisation exacerbates, the more likely it is for inapt conduct to be carried out and where uncivil behaviour becomes routine and regarded as normal by a workforce.

2.6 - Summary

Based on the data composed in this study, there is strong evidence that sexual harassment is still significantly active in the Fire and Rescue Services. Sexual harassment remains a major challenge that all the Services must continue to combat.

A number of key points have surfaced which indicate that although some aspects of harassment are well documented; others are quite under researched. A clear example of this is that the true scale of sexual harassment in the UK is unknown. There are no definitive incidence surveys. Estimates regarding its incidence and how widespread a problem it is differ widely, and without clear baseline data it is not possible to determine whether sexual harassment in British workplaces is increasing or decreasing. It is clear however, that sexual harassment can represent an abuse of power and can take many forms, from sexually explicit remarks and banter, to harassment over the telephone, to sexual assault.

There are three basic types of intervention that can be implemented by an organisation to prevent or deal with sexual harassment; prevention, responding to sexual harassment where it does occur and follow up in the aftermath of an investigation into a complaint of sexual harassment.

There are three types of intervention that organisations are recommended to implement to reduce and eliminate sexual harassment in the workplace: prevention of harassment through training plus effective policies and procedures; responding to harassment through an effective complaints procedure; and following up by addressing rehabilitation of the person who has been harassed and their harasser. Research suggests that these will be most effective where an organisation adopts a consultative and participatory approach at all stages, combined with effective monitoring and evaluation. The sexual harassment intervention model illustrated in advocates a proactive i.e. preventative rather than a reactive i.e. response driven strategy to sexual harassment policies and procedures.

Chapter 3: Conclusions and Recommendations

This chapter will initially consider conclusions from the research findings presented in the previous chapter followed by recommendations for future research. This chapter will be structured around the research questions with an additional section examining conclusions relating to the barriers faced by females joining the fire service and seeking progression.

3.1 - Conclusion

This report has identified and reviewed the available literature on sexual harassment to provide an overview of the current state of knowledge.

A number of key points have emerged which show that although some aspects of harassment are well documented, others are quite under researched. Harassment can have a serious impact on the individuals involved and the organisation where it occurs. The evidence strongly suggests that to avoid this, organisations take a proactive, i.e. preventative, rather than a reactive, i.e. response driven, approach to developing effective sexual harassment policies and procedures.

Much is still unknown about sexual harassment in the workplace and a number of areas for future research were identified. These included: attitudes towards harassment and the harassed; sexual harassment and ethnicity, disability and same sex harassment; evaluation and monitoring of programmes; the effect of leadership styles; and the gap between policy and practice. We need to understand the true scope and nature of sexual harassment and the effect it has both on the individual and on the workplace to enable the implementation of the most effective preventative policies and interventions. Ways of dealing with and reacting to sexual harassment differ widely and there is no single agreed method. Those thought to be most effective include confronting and negotiating with the harasser e.g. asking/telling them to stop, and advocacy seeking e.g. reporting the behaviour to a supervisor or outside agency. However, such actions can be very difficult to take, particularly when the person doing the harassing is a manager, as is often the case. One way of combating many of the problems is to provide employees with an informal, as well as a formal, route to follow when making a complaint about harassment. The difficulties of coping with harassment both on an individual and at an organisational level reinforce the need for effective preventative measures.

awareness of people's tendency to miss-predict what they would do in the same situation experienced by sexual harassment victims, as well as how those erroneous predictions affect co-workers' judgment of and behaviour toward the victims. Organizations also need to train employees how to reduce their biased perceptions and behaviour.

3.2 - Recommendations

The task of developing a more gender balanced fire service is at the core of the challenges of the modern FRS.

organisations take a proactive; preventative, rather than a reactive - response driven, approach to developing effective sexual harassment policies and procedures.

3.3 - Limitations

The biggest limitation under this project was the time limitation.

There was lack of data accuracy.

Due to time limitation, the data collected was secondary data.

3.4 - Future research

Fully effective sexual harassment policies and preventative programmes.

What is already known from the literature?

• Sexual harassment definitions

• Organisational violation, power and sexuality

• Forms of sexual harassment

• Groups at risk of sexual harassment

• Antecedents of sexual harassment (individual/ organisational/ societal)

• Short and long term effects on the individual and organisation

• Difficulties facing individuals who wish to file a complaint

• Legal responses

• Examples of best practice procedures

What is needed?

Empirical research examining:

Incidence of sexual harassment

Leadership styles and their impact on

sexual harassment incidence rates

Ethnicity and sexual harassment

Same sex sexual harassment

Disability and sexual harassment

Sexual harassment via electronic media

Attitudes towards sexual harassment and the impact on the individual of filing a complaint

Effectiveness of sexual harassment programmes and training

Comparative review of public and private sector policies and procedures

The gap between policy and practice