An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis Psychology Essay

Published Date: 23 Mar 2015

Organisations are struggling in the current competitive economic climate. Ensuring organizational survival may ultimately come down to attracting and recruiting skilled employees (Barber & Roehling, 1993). Terpstra (1994) identified recruitment as an essential strategy for organisations to prosper and survive in the global economy, suggesting the initial attraction and selection of candidates may be the most important foundation for organisational performance. As the realisation of the link between human-capital and financial growth is now a shared knowledge across sectors, the crucial importance an employee holds is broader acknowledged (Gardner, 2002). Recruitment is a fundamental organisational activity defining who will constitute the organisation (Turban & Cable, 2003). The difference between a mediocre and exceptional hire could mean momentous differences for organisational profit (Wicklund-Hansen & Weyergang-Nielsen, 2007). Thus the benefits of efficient and successful recruiting are increasingly recognized in research and literature (Barber, 1998; Billsberry, 2007; Breaugh, 2008).

Recognising the importance of employees, individually and as a whole, organisations are increasing their recruitment investments. Ralston & Brady (1994) modestly suggested the average cost of recruiting and selecting to be over $2000 per individual. Given such large amounts are spent, there is both an expectation and a demand for recruitment to be of organisational benefit. The study by Terjesen, Vinnicombe and Freeman (2007) addresses the need for adapting recruitment practices to up-and-coming graduates, soon to constitute the labour force of the 21st century. Research findings by Ryan, Sacco, McFarland and Kriska (2000) emphasize also the importance of recognising the individual applicant's choice in the recruitment process. However, Ryan and Tippins (2004) argue there are still large gaps between research and practice in this area.

Recruitment in the current labour market

Recruitment takes place in a wider societal context and shifts in the labour market will subsequently affect recruitment activities. In tighter markets potential candidates are likely to be less critical of the process as they are in desperate need for a job (Cable & Judge, 1996). Contrary, in a flourishing economy where organisations are in demand of multiple hires, the on-going competition leads to a lack of high-quality candidates. Fernández-Aráoz, Groysberg and Nohria (2009) claim organisations will face challenges when recruiting to replace the plentiful baby boomers. Some business sectors are especially prone to this and hence compete for the best candidates, also known as the war for talent (Ferris, Berkson & Harris, 2002; Hiltrop; 1999).

In contrast to much of Europe, Norway is a country where the economy is boosting (Takla, 2012). With an unemployment rate of 2.7% and increasing growth in the industry, Norway finds itself in a position where some occupations actually lack qualified workforce. Low unemployment rates will naturally increase competition for the best people (Ferris, Berkson & Harris, 2002), but in Norway this is also combined with a strong economy and growing companies. Recent figures from the Norwegian labour and welfare administration revealed a need for 16.000 engineers in the imminent future (Kaspersen, 2012) The numbers are consistent with research predicting technical and engineering skills of particular shortage in the years to come (Dohm, 2000). Businesses in unrelenting demand of talent are consequently competing, all depending on qualified employers to survive (Tulgan, 2001). How recruitment is managed should be of essential value especially for organisations in such a position. A recent survey showed that 92% of organisations within the oil- and gas sector in Norway were in demand for graduate engineers (Vartdal Riise, 2012). One of the largest technical universities in Norway plans to expand their capacity for engineers by several hundred (Amelie, 2012a). An emerging job market consisting of desperate organisations and cohorts of new graduates triggers the need for further insight into attraction and recruitment.

Defining recruitment

Recruitment literature stretches over a wide spectre, thus claiming necessity to clarify a definition for the thesis at hand. Also, it must be distinguished between the two organisational activities recruitment and selection, tightly linked and often occurring simultaneously. Recruitment can be viewed as the initial and sustained attraction of candidates, whereas selection is the process of selecting among potential employees (Rynes & Boudreau, 1986). Research on recruitment has often been subject to critique of having a static view of a process that is rather quite dynamic (Barber, 1998). In response this thesis views recruitment as an on-going process consisting of several stages (Saks & Uggerslev, 2010) and will apply the following definition for recruitment: "(…) the actions organizations take to generate applicant pools, maintain viable applicants, and encourage desired candidates to join those organizations" (Dineen & Soltis, 2011, p.43). This definition differs from Barber's (1998), critiqued for only focusing on attraction of candidates. Hence, it is desirable utilizing a definition that acknowledges the ultimate outcome of recruitment, namely a candidate´s job offer acceptance (Ferris, Berkson & Harris, 2002).

Five dimensions of recruitment

As the area of recruitment research is versatile, Barber´s (1998) distinction between five dimensions of recruitment will be applied in the following paragraph. This serves as both a framework for organising a wide research area, as well as discussing previous work with its inevitable strengths and limitations. Clearly illustrated by these examples are how the dimensions are inextricably linked, underlining recruitment as dynamic and complex (Boswell, Roehling, LePine & Moynihan, 2003).

Context

Rynes (1991) highlights the obvious fact that recruitment occurs in a wider contextual setting. The economic climate, labour market, organisational size and business-sector are all potentially influencing factors (Rynes, 1991; Rynes, Heneman & Schwab, 1980; Taylor & Bergmann, 1987; Turban, Campion & Eyring, 1995). As the experience of recruitment inevitably will vary, it can be of value to have more specific recruitment research related to a given context (Derous & Schreurs, 2009). Moreover, the need to recognise context as a variable in concrete research is much needed, as a great deal of recruitment studies is done in experimental settings. For example, Rynes and Miller (1983) manipulated recruiter knowledge, recruiter affect, and job attributes to measure effects of recruiter influence. Goltz and Giannantonio (1995) manipulated recruiter friendliness in an experimental video-condition study. Both studies found recruitment activities to have an effect on candidates, confirming the contributing value of experimental studies in the development of recruitment research (Chapman, Uggerslev, Carroll, Piasentin & Jones, 2005).

However, suggestions have been made that research designs using simulating job-applicants can lead to understated research claims (Rynes & Miller, 1983; Uggerslev, Fassina & Kraichy, 2012). Barber (1998) argues studies of experimental nature contribute to a simplification of the complexity the recruitment process holds. A simulated study does not necessarily capture the many variables and external occurrences that will influence a candidate in a real-world setting (Chapman, Uggerslev, Carroll, Piasentin & Jones, 2005). Studies utilizing real job seekers in an actual recruitment setting might validate the strength of previous findings, if holding true to contexts where influence of a recruitment process truly has consequences both for candidate and organisation. On the other hand, manipulating variables in recruitment activities would be ethically challenging (Highhouse, Lievens & Sinar, 2003). Therefore, studies done in a real-life setting must choose a method in line with strict ethical considerations.

Players

Naturally receiving most attention in recruitment research has been organisational representatives and candidates. Recognising both parties is the social process paradigm with a view of recruitment as a two-way, inter-subjective interaction (Herriot, 2002). This perspective has progressively earned respect as an alternative to the dominating psychometric paradigm by allowing for the candidate´s voice to be heard (Billsberry, 2007). The development towards a social process rather than a one-sided organisational choice leads to interesting interactions between candidate and organisation in the current economic climate. A number of recent studies have attempted to determine the best strategy for attracting and convincing candidates to accept job offers in a competitive market (Ferris, Berkson & Harris, 2002; Turban, Forret & Hendrickson, 1998; reference - possibly Boswell et al, if not finding any other more about a competitive market).

Extensively debated is whether recruiter characteristics and behaviour actually have an influence on candidates. Alderfer and McCord (1970) were among the first to explore the possible effect of recruiter characteristics; a continuing topic of interest as recruitment research has evolved. The meta-analysis by Chapman, Uggerslev, Carroll, Piasentin and Jones (2005) concluded that recruiter behaviour such as being personable influenced candidate attraction to organisations. By applying signalling theory (Spence, 1973) to recruitment, research has demonstrated how candidates view recruiters in the recruitment process as signals of unknown organisational characteristics and attributes (Turban, Forret & Hendrickson, 1998). Rynes, Bretz and Gerhart (1991) found recruiters to act as a symbol of interpersonal relations in the organisation, indicating candidates use recruiter behaviour as images of interpersonal work relations. Chapman and Webster (2006) later concluded recruiter influence appears more complex than anticipated.

However, Breaugh (2012) points out that less attention has been devoted to recruiter effects over the last few years. Also, a majority of recruiter-candidate interaction research is built on experimental designs, possibly ignoring effects from a real-life human interplay (reference). It is further suggested that qualitative research could prove value beyond the majority of existing quantitative research (Breaugh, 2012).

Activities

Organisations facilitate recruitment activities such as campus career fairs, employment interviews and site visits to attract candidates (Arvey & Campion, 1982; Turban, Campion & Eyring, 1995). The review by Rynes, Heneman and Schwab (1980) and more recent research by Collins and Stevens (2002) both state that recruitment activities have the potential to influence candidates, possibly by signals of wider organisational attributes (Turban, 2001). However, there is still a need for a better understanding of how recruitment activities affect a candidate (Turban, 2001).

Breaugh (2008) highlights the site visit as a recruitment activity given undeservedly little attention. An exception is the study by Turban, Campion and Eyring (1995) extending preceding research by demonstrating just how influential the site visit can be on actual job acceptance decisions. Another interesting aspect of the site visit is the possibility to meet future colleagues beyond organisational representatives often sent from the human resource department. Consistent with the suggestion by Rynes and Miller (1983), Rynes, Bretz and Gerhart (1991) found that meetings with any given organisational representative is less influential than meeting someone from the same functional area as the candidate. The site visit typically consists of several activities and Turban, Campion & Eyring (1995) suggest future research continuing to investigate how applicants interpret and make meaning of attending one.

Saks and Uggerslev (2010) critiques existing research for an exaggerated focus on single activities. Consequentially some activities can come across as having a very small or large influence, possibly limited by research methodology. Those who ultimately accept a job offer will have been through a more extensive process, very likely consisting of several activities. Whereas initial stages are critical to determine candidate´s further pursuit, later stages have a profound effect on the final job acceptance decision. Recruitment activities do not occur in a vacuum. The overall experience of a recruitment process based on combined effects of activities must be acknowledged (Saks & Uggerslev, 2010).

Phases

Experimental studies often break the recruitment process down to smaller units for investigation. This approach ignores that going through a recruitment process is not likely to be experienced as single events with a separate effect on the candidate, but rather as a process consisting of phases (Boswell, Roehling, LePine and Moynihan, 2003). The early stages of recruitment have been suggested critical, because this can decide candidate's willingness to proceed with a given organisation. Critical contact theory addresses how applicants are influenced in their first meeting with organisational representatives (Ralston & Brady, 1994). Rynes, Bretz and Gerhart's (1991) study demonstrated the possible detrimental effects of a single interaction, showing a number of candidates actually chose to withdraw from recruitment based on a negative first impression.

Due to the stress job search can hold as well as anticipation of evaluation, it has been suggested job applicants enter the process with uncertainty as a salient emotion (Proost, Derous, Schreurs, Hagtvet & De Witte, 2008; Rynes, 1991). Moreover, uncertainty is likely to persist as candidates are faced with consistently limited information (Barber & Roehling, 1993). Assessing levels of uncertainty is difficult in a simulated setting, unfortunately undermining a great deal of existing research (Breaugh, 1992, as cited in Barber & Roehling, 1993).

Studies have demonstrated that candidates weigh various information and organisational features differently throughout the recruitment process (Carless, 2005; Jaidi, Van Hooft & Arends, 2011). The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) suggests peripheral processing is superior to central processing in the primary stages of a recruitment process (Larsen & Phillips, 2002). The former type of information processing typically leads to a focus on environmental cues rather than relevant job characteristics. Saks and Uggerslev's (2010) study on college students found that rather focusing on the effect of a single activity or stage, the total combination of the whole recruitment process should be considered. Contrary, it has been suggested that various stages of the recruitment process in itself does not significantly influence a candidate' final decision (Lawler, Kuleck, Rhode & Sorensen, 1975; Powell & Goulet, 1996). Findings from previous research thus prove conflicting; suggesting candidates may go through recruitment with or without a diverse range of perceptions, emotions and thoughts that influence their final decisions.

Outcome

For organisations to maximise utility, the ultimate end goal of a recruitment process is job offer acceptance from desirable candidates (Jackson & Schuler, 1990). Nevertheless, much research has often studied candidate´s reactions at a given point during the process. Attracting and maintaining candidates are obviously necessary requirements for a viable recruitment process. Yet, acknowledging the process' inherent dynamic nature combined with the fact that organisations attempt to actively influence a potential candidate; the effects of this influence must be assessed. The study by Aiman-Smith, Bauer and Cable (2001) revealed that different factors lead to job attraction and actual job pursuit. An extensive amount of research measures only candidate's attitudes, perceptions and impressions, rather than actual choice (Rynes, Bretz & Gerhart, 1991). Many studies approach recruitment from the organisation's view, attempting to establish how an applicant can be persuaded to accept a job offer (Jaidi, Van Hooft & Arends, 2011; reference). Such studies operate with the implicit assumption of a candidate actually making a choice (Boswell et al., 2003). However there is less knowledge of how the candidate perceives this choice or decision-making. The perspective of a candidate who has been through a full recruitment experience with the result of accepting a job offer is less investigated and will inevitably provide knowledge of important aspects of recruitment (Saks & Uggerslev, 2010).

Graduates

A large part of an organisation's recruitment activities revolve around new graduates, of interest for the new skills and updated education they contribute with (Turban, Forret & Hendrickson, 1998; Wayne & Casper, 2012). The recent years have witnessed changes in recruitment practices as competition for graduates tightens (Branine, 2008).

However, recruitment literature and research has often been criticised for overly emphasizing college graduates (Breaugh, 2008; Rynes, Heneman III & Schwab, 1980). Nevertheless, multiple interesting aspects serve justice to focusing on this particular group of job seekers. Career theory refers to the transition from student to employee as an important one, significantly affecting a person´s life (Super, 1980). Previous research has found inexperienced job seekers to be more likely influenced by recruitment practices (Feldman & Arnold, 1978; Larsen & Phillips, 2002). Walker, Field, Giles and Bernerth (2008) demonstrated how candidates' limited job experience and job search influenced their perception of recruitment activities. Seeking full-time employment for the very first time might be a particular meaningful event where one is exceptionally aware of recruitment practices because of their novelty.

Graduate recruitment is both voluminous in size and investments( Rynes & Boudreau, 1986). In addition, the study by Terjesen, Vinnicombe and Freeman (2007) suggested the coming workforce, generation Y (1977-1994) differs from previous generations. As organisations are increasingly acknowledging human capital as a competitive edge, the need for educated workforce is not likely to decrease. Liden and Parsons (1996) points out that educated candidates approach job-searching differently than candidates seeking lower level jobs, where the former is more discriminating in the process.

Collectively, this demonstrates new graduates as a sample of interest for further investigation. Rather than attempting to generalise across all job seekers, clearly quite distinctive, this study recognises and appreciates graduates as a separate target group for research.

Aim and research question

In summary, Barber's dimensions call attention to recruitment research in the field, where context and realistic human interaction is acknowledged. There is a need to further investigate how recruitment activities and recruiter behaviour are elements of a whole recruitment experience leading to the ultimate outcome of a candidate's job offer acceptance. The current economic climate holds exciting times for new graduates. Indeed, Celani and Singh (2011) highlight the competitive benefit an organisation could gain from enhanced understandings of candidate´s reaction and appraisal of recruitment practices.

By acknowledging the individual as the organisations most valuable asset, an expectation follows to consider the individual´s perspective, also in recruitment. Breaugh (2012) highlighted the valuable in-depth insight to the candidate´s perspective from the previous qualitative work of Rynes, Bretz and Gerhart (1991) and Boswell, Roehling, LePine & Moynihan (2003). Based on a person-centric approach, Weiss & Rupp (2011) suggest the human subjective experience should guide more research. Insight from candidate's own words about recruitment experiences has been of inspiration (Billsberry, 2007). Therefore, the study employs a phenomenological approach to address the following research question:

How does a recent graduate experience the recruitment process?

A phenomenological approach

Phenomenology is concerned with exploring the richness of a real, concrete, daily-lived phenomenon (Finlay, 2009). The transition from graduating student to working professional has been proven a major one, additionally supported by life-stages theory and career theory (Ng & Feldman, 2007; Schein, 1978, Super; 1980). Billsberry (2007) argue job-related events such as obtaining or changing jobs are of significance, but they are also a natural experience in the inevitable progression of life. Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) is an approach of exploration of a lived experience (Clarke, 2009). Interpretative phenomenological analysis is therefore suitable to explore how a new graduate experience a recruitment process. Something about why not other qualitative methods?

However, merely stating that a study is of phenomenological nature is not sufficient for methodological rigour. Adopting a philosophical stance underpinning the method of choice should be done to uphold methodological clarity (Lowes & Prowse, 2001). The transcendental phenomenology as described in the original work of Husserl request suspending all presuppositions of a phenomenon through bracketing (Smith, Flowers & Larkin, 2009). This standpoint has been critiqued for not recognising the cognitive aspect of a human being situated in a contextual world (Wilding & Whiteford, 2005). Furthermore, the researcher´s seminal role in identifying, defining and formulating research is consistent with Smith´s (2004) recommendation to avoid a superficial attempt of bracketing. The philosophical foundations underlying IPA is simply not compatible with complete bracketing, as the interpretative component inevitably acknowledges the researcher´s role.

Heidegger advocates a hermeneutic phenomenology with interpretation at its core (Smith, Flowers & Larkin, 2009). Utilizing a double hermeneutic acknowledges the dual role of the researcher, where one tries to make sense of the participants experience after the experience has been subject to sense making from the participant itself (Smith & Osborn, 2003 - double check book Uni). Rather than shallow bracketing, not adequate to its true form as proposed by Husserl, reflexive bracketing was done in resonance with Ahern´s recommendations (1999). As being reflexive involves more than having an awareness of one´s standpoint, but should be consciously exercised throughout the research process, a full reflexive account is given in section x.x (Finlay, 2002).

A main goal in phenomenology is being able to understand what a particular experience is like for someone else (Creswell, 2007). Rooted in the phenomenological approach is the recognition that an experience takes place in a specific context (Willig, 2009). The contextual setting of the study will subsequently be addressed in the following section.

Context

To advocate high-quality research, Stiles (1993) advise explicit awareness of the social and cultural context of the research (as cited in Elliott, Fischer & Rennie, 1999). IPA recognises that the individual is positioned in a context, inevitably influencing the individual sense-making process (Clarke, 2009). Furthermore, the aspect of context has often been overlooked in recruitment research, pointed out by Rynes (1991) more than twenty years ago. Erhart and Zieger (2005) continuously emphasize researchers to render the environmental context where organisational recruitment takes place. Several authors have highlighted the important factor of the current labour market (Rynes, Heneman & Schwab, 1980; Turban, Campion & Eyring, 1995). In response and in the belief of context-depending findings, the following paragraph will give a brief description of the context where this study took place.

The region of Western Norway thrives on the oil business and a majority of workplaces originates within this sector (Boe Hornbug, 2012). Stavanger, one of the largest cities in the region is often referred to as the oil capital of Norway. Several large international oil companies base their Norwegian head offices in this part of the country. Due to constant development over the last years and a forecast of continuous growth there is a pressing need for qualified engineers.

The present study was conducted in an oil company employing 70.000 across the world, whereby 2000 of these work in Norway (Taraldsen, 2012). A recent survey completed by engineering students from the largest University in the area demonstrated the company´s high status; the company was rated among the top five most popular employers (Hult, 2012). The company still emphasizes advertising their vacancies through the most popular job-search base in Norway. In general, job advertisements underline the company's attractiveness by emphasizing their abilities and position in the market. The adverts also encourage potential candidates to apply by embracing the uniqueness of each individual employee. During winter 2011/2012, the company carried out a recruitment process for their graduate programme, hiring 25 trainees after receiving several hundred applications.

On the basis of their recent recruitment experience, a number of the newly hired trainees were asked to participate in this study. Acknowledging the criticism of recruitment research´s large focus on graduate samples (Rynes, Orlitzky & Bretz, Jr., 1997), nevertheless this was seen as a factor adding to the interest of this study. The social, the cultural and the heavy media focus on the oil business sector may lead to both expectations and pressure for a new graduate. A survey of the labour market during spring 2012 demonstrated that 82% of engineer graduates already have a contract signed by completion of their education (Amelie, 2012b). Organisations are ambitious in their search for talented candidates and as a result initiate recruitment at early stages (Gjerde, 2012; Halvorsen & Ellingsen, 2011). While the offensive approach of competing organisations can contribute to an awareness of the attractiveness of engineers, it can simultaneously force feelings of pressure, rush and stress to the process of securing a job.

Method

Design

To explore new graduates experience of a recruitment process, a cross-sectional study of qualitative nature was conducted. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was used to analyse semi-structured interviews.

Procedure

The researcher made contact with the organisation through a personal acquaintance in February 2012. Being aware of possible challenges in regards to organisational access, the researcher took several steps to ensure a smooth process (Johl & Renganthan, 2010). Through mutual agreement between the researcher´s area of interest as well as the organisation´s need, a suitable sample for research was identified. The sample was chosen purposively to ensure all the participants had experienced the phenomena of interest, necessary to give insight into a particular perspective of the experience (Smith, Flowers & Larkin, 2009). Striving for a homogeneous sample, sample criteria were set to be recent graduated engineers who through the process of obtaining their first job naturally had been through a recruitment process. It was established prior to commencement of research that participants had been exposed to various recruitment activities.

To increase credibility for the study the human resource senior manager of the organisation sent out the first informative e-mail, encouraging participation. This was also done to ensure the participants felt comfortable sharing their experience, given they were recently hired at the organisation. Further, the researcher established contact per e-mail with the individual with thorough information (Appendix X: Information sheet). E-mail contact is considered efficient for both parties in establishing contact and to make further arrangements for the interview (Seidman, 2006). Given practical considerations and various start-dates, 14 individuals were contacted. As IPA is concerned with the quality and not the quantity of accounts, the researcher searched for a smaller sample as 3-6 participants is recommended (Smith, Flowers & Larkin, 2009). However it was found useful to initially contact a larger number, being aware that some participants may withdraw (Seidman, 2006). All but one were initially positive, however situational factors led to a final sample of 6 participants. The researcher found this sample to fulfil the requirement of both suitable size and saturation (Kvale, 2007).

Participants

The sample consisted of Norwegian citizens, 3 females and 3 males (6 in total) between the ages 22-28. All participants had experienced various recruitment processes, including a site visit arranged by the organisation prior to being hired. The participants were all recent graduated engineers with a BSc or an MSc degree within various fields of engineering. All participants had their education from Norwegian universities where recruitment activities arranged by several companies had taken place in various forms. All but one participant resided in the greater area of Stavanger. Fictitious names were given to each participant to ensure anonymity.

Interviews

Inviting to a rich, detailed and personal account of the individual´s experience, semi-structured interviews were chosen as method for this study. This is the preferred method for IPA as its flexibility allows for the experience of interest to lead the interview, rather than fitting it into pre-determined categories of a structured interview (Smith, 1995).

Two pilot interviews were conducted early in the process, as strongly advised by Seidman (2006). This familiarises the researcher with the complexities an interview may hold. Although not identical with the actual sample, the volunteers for pilot interviews were also recent graduates having undergone recruitment processes in their search for jobs in the past year. Hence pilot interviews were useful to provide insight into possible important aspects of a recruitment experience and also led to changes in the interview structure such as fewer and less non-directive questions. The pilot was also seen as valuable training in interview technique, which according to Kvale (2007) is mastered through extensive practice.

The interview guide was developed after wide reading around the topic of interest as well as inspiration from the pilot. Advised by Smith, Flower and Larkin (2009) it was attempted to approach the area of interest sideways. Rather than asking direct questions, which may be leading the participant, the questions attempted to facilitate a discussion around the topic of interest. The interview commenced by the open-ended question "Could you tell me about how you got this job?" (Appendix X). For an open-mind in regards to the participant´s experience, open-ended questions were asked, allowing the participant´s answer to steer the direction of the interview (Smith, Flowers & Larkin, 2009). Although having prepared possible follow-up questions, the researcher exercised flexibility throughout the interviews to fully be able to attend to the personal experience of the individual. Probes and prompts were used as suited. The interview session was rounded off asking each participant if they had anything further to add which had not been addressed in the interview, but that was seen as important in their recruitment experience (Kvale, 2007).

Interviews were held in the workplace during week 26 and 27 at the participant´s convenience. The researcher made sure to be allocated a room in sufficient distance from the participant´s department, to strengthen anonymity and to allow for a private interview in a silent, comfortable environment. Informal chat was facilitated to build rapport and to make participants feel at ease (Seidman, 2006). Consent forms (Appendix X) were signed prior to commencement of interviews. The researcher explained the nature of the interview, as advised by Kvale (2007) for it can be of clarifying value to the participant. All interviews were conducted in Norwegian, the native language of both interviewer and interviewee. Interviews were tape-recorded and lasted between 47-63 minutes. Directly following the interview the recording was transferred as a wav audio format file and saved on the researchers password-protected computer. Interviews were transcribed verbatim, aided by software (ExpressScribe), easing the transcribing by slowing down the speed of speech.

Data analysis procedure

In line with interpretative phenomenological analysis, an ideographic method of analysis was used (Smith, Flowers & Larkin, 2009). Despite no prescriptive method must be followed; for purposes of clarity and transparency the analysis was conducted and subsequently will be described in line with the six steps outlined by Smith, Flowers and Larkin (2009).

Step 1: Transcripts were played back and read repetitively. While listening, a visual image reflecting the soundtrack was created, in attempt to 'be' in the participant´s experience.

Step 2: Initial noting was taken in the left-hand margin, not bounded by any restrictions. Immersing in the text together with creative note taking was seen important to truly engage in the transcript.

Step 3: The original text and initial notes were used simultaneously to develop themes; shorter sentences or single words to describe the essence of what was said. Interpretation was exercised, while constantly checking back to the transcript.

Step 4: Naturally, thought processes of related themes occurred during the analysis. For a more organised process, themes were written up chronologically and subsequently organised under super-ordinate themes by subsumption. As suggested by Smith, Flowers and Larkin (2009), Word-files with extracts to support each theme were created, relating each theme to the original text by line number (Appendix X).

Step 5: Committing to an idiographic approach, the foregoing stages were repeated for remaining transcripts. To avoid biased analysis the researcher allowed generous time between analysing each interview, for emergent themes to freely develop for each consecutive interview.

Step 6: By completion of all individual analysis, a search for patterns across was initiated. By Smith et al. (2009) recommendation, several techniques were used to identify master-themes. Subthemes and naming of master-themes were discussed with a fellow student. Themes were put on a blackboard for visual overview. This process strengthened the iterative nature of the process, as themes were moved around, renamed and some discarded until analysis was completed.

A concrete example of initial note-taking in the left- and right hand margin can be found in appendix X. Notwithstanding the structured process just described, the analysis was iterative and all the while holding an individual focus when reflecting the experience of the particular group. Aiding the mastery of IPA, it was considered vital to read other IPA-studies (e.g. Millward, 2006; Murray & Harrison, 2004; Smith, Michie, Stephenson & Quarrell, 2002). In addition, practical use of the method was discussed with current and previous student colleagues.

Validity

Morse (1999) highlights the utmost necessity of addressing validity in qualitative research. Smith et al. (2009) recommends guidelines for validity in qualitative research proposed by Elliott, Fischer and Rennie (1999). The following paragraph will outline how these guidelines were utilized to ensure high quality in the research process.

Owning one´s perspective

Situating the sample

Grounding in examples

Providing credibility checks

Coherence

Accomplishing general vs. specific research tasks

Resonating with readers

Clarifying one´s perspective is important both prior to- and during research. The researcher had limited personal experience as a candidate in a recruitment process, however the research was inspired by acquaintances accounts of such experiences. Based on this, the researcher had presumptions that the recruitment experience was important, possibly vivid and emotional.

To provide the reader with a better understanding of this particular research, it was considered important to situate the sample in a context (section x.x). More specifically, a description of the participants was given (section x.x) to allow for transparency and future replication of the study.

For a perspicuous analysis and discussion, quotes from the interviews will be used in the results section so that the reader is able to follow the understanding developed from the actual data. This also contributes to the attempt of a coherent presentation of findings, but nevertheless recognising the individual nuances of the data. Altogether this is hoped to contribute to a rich understanding of the experience under investigation and to further broaden this conceptualisation. As all interviews were conducted and transcribed in Norwegian, the chosen quotes have been translated. The researcher acknowledges playing an active role when translating (Larkin, Dierchx de Casterlè & Schotsmans, 2007). Rather than a direct translation word-by-word, the researcher attempted to convey the meaning of the participant´s words (Temple, 1997) and trusting own bilingual skills. Some Norwegian words can have numerous meanings. As selected quotes were utilised in support of multiple themes, the researcher had to exercise caution to avoid distinct translations conforming to the various themes (Appendix X).

Although a general understanding of the phenomena is desirable and intended, however it is appreciated through a transparent description of all relevant factors in the research that this is representative of a limited number of informants.

Following the idiographic approach of analysing and identifying themes for each interview, one participant was contacted to validate the credibility of individual sub- and master themes (Appendix X). This was done both with respect to participants and to the experience itself. While acknowledging the researcher´s interpretative role in the research, the origin of the experience resides in the participant. A credibility check of master themes across participants was done by a fellow student for an additional analytic audit to avoid discrepancies or premature conclusions made by the researcher.

Reflexivity

Newton, Rothlingova, Gutteridge, LeMarchand and Raphael (2011) highlight the importance of a reflexive account in qualitative research. The following paragraph will consequently discuss how reflexivity was exercised throughout the research process. Reflexivity is a dynamic and evolving process, hence a reflective logbook was kept and the reflexive account written in retrospect.

The author, hereby I, inevitably bring expectations, ideas and cognitive structures when entering the field as a researcher. Embodying, admitting and accepting own beliefs prior to research can help understanding possible implications this may hold. Venturing into the study, I found myself clearly influenced by the media´s portrayal of the current labour market for engineers. This led to an expectation of the recruitment process characterized by balanced power between organisation and candidate. Only through acknowledging this expectation, I was able to put aside concomitant beliefs and allow participant´s own true experience come to life.

With the participants I neither shared professional background nor experience as applying for full-time positions. Contrary, as participants were currently students, the shared background of a young person ready to enter the labour market was found contributing to building rapport.

I was acutely aware of my own potential influence upon interviews. A visit to the organisation prior to interviews made me able to dress appropriately according to the organisational standard to reduce a possible impact of gender, class or role as a researcher (Pillow, 2003). Some participant´s desire to please the researcher was potent early in the interview. To avoid leading participants, stronger emphasis had to be placed on the interest of their experience and the nonexistence of a right or wrong answer. During interviews I permitted appropriate moments of silence allowing the participant to reflect and possibly elaborate in answering the researcher´s question (Denscombe, 2010; Kvale, 2007). As I became more comfortable as interviews progressed, such pauses came naturally and certainly proved valuable for data richness. Participants were observed to provide more insightful accounts of their experience when not immediately asked a follow-up question.

As the research project was of great personal interest to me, I had to exercise caution to avoid jumping to premature conclusions. Eagerly becoming immersed in the interviews and realizing I was at risk of generalising across participants, it was decided to leave generous time between both conducting and analysing each interview as to mentally reset and disengage from each individual account.

Results

Three master themes emerged from the analysis. Figure 1 represents a visual overview of master- and subthemes.

Figure 1

The interview data showed that an individual´s experiences in the recruitment process were rich and vividly remembered, thus illustrating the personal significance of this experience. As the raw data proved so thick the result section will focus on the essential features of the phenomenon (Willig, 2009). Each master theme will be described briefly, before moving on to more detailed explanations of sub themes with extracted quotes from the interviews. Any names that could identify the organisation or employees have been replaced with a fictive substitute.

For clarifying purposes, 'participants' will be used when referring directly to this study's findings, whereas 'candidates/applicants' will be used for general statements/claims.

Mutual self-presentation / impressions / mutual impression making

First impressions

Pressure to perform

Organisational effort

More than impressions: realistic insight

Me as a whole person

Showing the real me

Interpersonal relations/interaction/treatment

Treated like an equal

Am I good enough?

Organisation holds the power

Feeling insignificant

Need to prove oneself

Mutual self-presentation

The theme 'mutual self-presentation' accentuates the significant role both the candidate and the organisation play in recruitment. While first impressions of organisations are formed from the candidate's angle, there is an acute awareness among candidates of a situation of personal performance. Nevertheless, the organisation is perceived to promote their organisation in the attempt of attracting candidates. Activities with this purpose give the candidates a chance for a more genuine organisational insight.

First impressions

All the participants described limited knowledge of either organisation or position, natural as a new graduate. Thomas and Connor use the words "barely heard of" and "word" indicating receptiveness for first impressions.

Olivia is conscious of her first meeting with organisational representatives because she has had limited interaction with the organisation beforehand.

Olivia: "(…) both the lady I spoke with on the career fair, she was really nice, and the lady who interviewed me for the speed interview was really nice and friendly. So I got a really positive first impression of Johnson Oil. Because those were the only two I had met from Johnson Oil. So it was kind of my first impression".

First impressions are particularly salient for some participants, where Lucy's word "bye" exemplifies how this impression was the first and only she got from a certain company.

Lucy: "I remember the man who said that (…) I remember him because he said: we only accept people with Master´s. And I just okay, bye then".

Becky is venturing into her first experience as a full-time job seeker and her first impressions are particularly prominent due to the situational novelty.

Becky: "(…) yes, it was my first interview. So you get a bit like oh, well this sounds really good. I remember when I drove home after the site visit I thought: Oh, I really hope I get this job".

Becky's words underline the importance of an early interaction, e.g. a site visit, by implying she is intrigued by the experience and anticipate further job pursuit. Implicit in her words is an expectation of having to perform to achieve a job offer.

Pressure to perform

Becky captures the essence of this subtheme, acknowledging both organisational and own expectations regarding own performance.

Becky: "You feel it, the need to perform and the desire to make a good impression".

Coming straight from University, Daniel describes how candidates relate the emotional laden performance-situation to a similar reference frame for a student.

Daniel: "People get really anxious in situations like these, relates it to exams and oral tests. A lot of people really get stressed about it, they have that: oh no, this has to go well, if not my life is over".

Daniel's words resonate with Lucy's description of how the decisive nature of a recruitment process holds pressure.

Lucy: "Then you either get rejected or accepted. Just like that".

However, the site visit is highlighted as a less pressured arena, possibly a contrast to what Lucy described as a 'single traditional interview'.

Connor: "A positive thing about the first day of the site visit was that you did not really have to perform there (…) Maybe calm your nerves".

Connor's words reveal overall tension in the situation, despite saying that the site visit holds less performance pressure. Connor seems to experience a discrepancy in regards to his own nervousness. He uses expressions like "not that nervous", "far from extremely nervous", "wasn't nervous", "been more nervous" and "was even more nervous" all in relation to the same recruitment experience. Several manifestations of nervousness might be an indication of Connor feeling nervous, yet trying to keep it cool in a pressured situation. The presence of Connor's apparent nervousness is consistent with participants being almost constantly aware of how they portray themselves, consciously acknowledged by Daniel.

Daniel: "You know what kind of situation it is and you should make an effort to show off".

Even during the evening dinner where organisational representatives and candidates meet to socialize and have a few drinks, the situation still holds the stress to perform.

Lucy: "It was, you felt like you couldn´t really just binge on beer and treat it like a party (…) I felt that you had to show that you were able to talk to their current employees. I don´t really know whether they assessed it, or what they were looking for. But I felt that was sort of the point of that dinner".

Illuminated by words like "dread", "nerve-wrecking" and "stressful", the recruitment situation is clearly a pressured situation of performance for all participants, though less so for Thomas. He also acknowledges being evaluated, however he is positive to a job in a densely populated location and is consequently more attractive for the organisation.

Organisational effort

Implicit in Thomas' words is that recruitment is a two-way street, where both parties must exercise effort in the attempt of approval from the other part.

Thomas: "(…) about the possibilities, about the position, about the department. Yes, a bit of making themselves interesting".

Becky's words link organisational effort to the current labour market, using words like "they need people" and "they are on to you". Olivia states the valued position of new graduates and the expectation to be treated thereafter.

Olivia: "We are their future labour force and if they want us, they have to, they can't just treat us any way they want".

Both Connor and Daniel use the word 'sell' to explain the behavioural effort of the organisations, implying the candidate is a buyer with multiple possible options.

Connor: "By all means, you have to be nice, positive smiling (…) the right people (…) have to sell it".

According to Olivia and Daniel, organisations seem to vary in their selling behaviour.

Olivia: "Do they think like: oh well, we'll get enough applicants either way, so we can't be bothered to make an effort?"

Daniel: "I don't think they are struggling to get people. But it seems like they are trying to give a positive impression".

The two quotes show opposite approaches to recruitment, where the latter stresses organisational effort to impress a potential employee. All participants attended a site visit, highlighting this as a genuine organisational effort where they all express being impressed by the professionalism and thorough, prepared arrangements. The site visit was also an opportunity for candidates to have a closer look at the organisation to confirm their impression or to get a more realistic, true-to-life image of the organisation.

More than impressions: A realistic insight

Participants often use words as "seem", "appear", "sounds like", explicitly expressing that impressions of an organisation are not necessarily representative of the company's every-day life.

Daniel: "You can read anything on a website and okay, it looks good here, but you never know".

Connor and Lucy describe a new workplace as 'entering the unknown' and 'foreign', possibly referring to how they with uncertainty enter an unfamiliar situation. The site visit offers the candidate a possibility to see and experience the organisation with own eyes. Obviously a single visit is markedly distinctive from the ordinary working day, yet it offers the candidate wider insight of a potential future workplace.

Olivia: You create a greater image of the organisation (…) You get to meet, to see people who actually work there and I mean, more than one person. And you get lots more information about the actual work and you get to have a look around (…) we were given a tour, in the workshop, the lab".

The site visit stands out in participant's experience, contributing to their desire for the job. Especially Lucy, Olivia, Thomas and Becky emphasize strong feelings in their expression of "really, really wanting this job" after the site visit.

Finally, the site visit is seen as a bilateral benefit for both organisation and candidate, which Becky's word captures nicely.

Becky: "It gave me the opportunity to get to know them, the company, and them a good opportunity to get to know us".

Lucy's words witness of appreciation of a more comprehensive process, with the interpretation of both candidate and organisational perspective.

Lucy: "It was something more than just an hour across a desk".

Me as a whole person

Becky and Lucy's words lead to the theme of the importance of being seen in the recruitment process. Linking back to self-presentation relates to being a candidate applying for a job, however participants are complete human beings with more to them than a CV and a transcript of grades. Being treated not only like a candidate, but also a person involves being given a chance to show who they are through a general good interpersonal treatment from recruiters.

Showing the real me / showing who I am

Coming into the recruitment process the participants are basically seen as a candidate, represented by their CV and application. The emphasis on "personality", "personal characteristics" and "several sides" signifies how the candidate wants to be considered as a "whole".

Becky: "(…) for them to get to know us. In all kinds of settings (…) so you would think they are left with quite a good impression, right? Compared to someone who just read your CV".

The chance to interact in different settings allows for portrayal of personal aspects not necessarily evident by one's CV. Although the company dinner was described as an impression-management situation, it is also seen as a more casual, social event.

Lucy: "Socially, during the dinner, it wasn´t all about grades (…) It seemed like they wanted to see the whole package".

That the organisation invites the candidates out to dinner, placing them in a more relaxed setting, could be seen as an indicator of the organisation wanting to get to know you as a person. This recognises the value of the whole you, not only as a candidate contributing with work-related skills.

Becky: "(…) they want to get to know you. See what kind of person you are".

Given the chance to show multiple aspects of oneself seems reassuring on the candidate because they get across who they really are. Connor describes the importance of having given a "correct image" of him-self. Olivia looks ahead by emphasizing how showing who you are can contribute to feeling accepted and wanted in the organisation.

Olivia: "Maybe you feel a bit more confident when you start the job, because I know that they know something of who I am already".

For candidates to show the real self, they are dependent on interest from the organisation. Connor emphasize wanting to "work for someone who seems interested". In the interaction between organisation and candidate, the communication between the two is somewhat determined by the other part. Thus, how organisational representatives treat you become important.

Interpersonal treatment

All the participants highlight characteristics of the organisational representatives they met, using words as "friendly", "nice" and "helpful". The meeting with representatives stand out in their experience and interacts with the master theme of self-presentation. Candidates form an impression of the organisation as a whole, but recruiters are the salient representatives whom this impression is largely based on.

Becky: "First and foremost, it is about the people you meet and talk with".

In resonance with first impressions, both positive and negative treatment in an early interaction can be of decisive nature, where one interaction can lead to wider inferences about the organisation.

Olivia: "If she´s like that, is that how everyone in this company is?"

Participants talked about their recruitment experiences in ways that indicate situations of stress, nerves and pressure. Lucy was so nervous in one situation, she explicitly says she did not sense or notice anything. Yet her following words indicate the importance of interpersonal treatment.

Lucy: "I was extremely nervous to do the presentation in English, so I didn´t notice anything. I remember Charlotte (organisational representative) was there, she was smiling".

How organisational representatives interact with candidates can reduce the nervousness they feel in a high-pressure situation, as further described by Olivia.

Olivia: "I was obviously a little nervous, but I felt calmer when I spoke to her, because she was really nice and really easy to talk to".

How recruiters and organisational representatives treat candidates is a symbol of several aspects. For a newcomer, visible behaviour can be the first hint of the general interpersonal atmosphere in the workplace. Proper treatment is also an indicator of genuine interest.

Connor: "I´ve come across those who just sit staring one their phone and all kinds of things, showing no interest whatsoever. That is not particularly fun".

The treatment in itself recognises the candidate as an actual person, contributing to feelings of respect and equality.

Treated like an equal

A simple word says a lot about equality in this setting:

Daniel: "At all times, how they talked with us".

Rather than being talked at or even down to, the word with symbolizes a conversation between two equal parts. New graduates are in the transition between student-life and work-life with the inevitable role-shift from being a student to being a working professional. Participants were explicitly aware of their role as a student, with the following extract as a tentative suggestion of this role's inferiority.

Olivia: "Even though we are only students".

Olivia's words, echoed also by Thomas and Becky, implies how participants see themselves and possibly the reference frame by which they enter the recruitment process. Lucy further elaborates on this:

Lucy: "For you to not have the feeling that the other person (organisational representative) is better than you (…). That he comes down to your level".

The last sentence indicates presence of a difference between organisational representatives and candidates, however interpersonal treatment can weigh up this unbalanced relationship. Similarly, Thomas described feelings of equality when the recruiters put themselves in the candidate's position. When being subjected to a situational judgment test (SJT) his initial stress by the situation was reassured by knowing the recruiters understood the challenge.

Thomas: "It (SJT) was extremely difficult and they were aware of that (…). They had been through it in the department, tried it out on each other. So they were aware of how difficult it was".

The recruitment process necessarily holds situations of uneven power. Although somewhat accepted, the participants still express appreciation of attempts of equalizing the balance. Daniel appreciates the presence of a 'collegial tone'. In contrast, Olivia used the word 'interrogation' to describe how an interview could feel like. Close to all the participants distinguished between the words 'interview' and 'conversation'. The latter clearly signified more of a dialogue between two equal parts, where elements of humour, laughter and off-topic subjects was permitted.

Becky: "You almost felt like it was not a interview. It was more, we just sat around a table talking".

Am I good enough?

The final master theme relates to both master theme 1 and 2. Self-presentation is partially experienced as mutual, but from the candidate's perspective the situation holds pressure to perform, fear of failure and need to achieve. Interpersonal interactions with organisational representatives are determinants of success in the struggle to show whom you are. Yet to achieve the ultimate outcome of recruitment, obtaining a job offer, it comes down to whether the organisation thinks you are the best candidate for the job. 'Am I good enough' is thus characterized by the uncertainty felt by candidates in a competitive situation lacking control. Feelings of insecurity originate from recruiter's actions as well as candidate's own cognitive processes.

The organisation holds the power

Contrary to what one might expect given the economic climate outlined, participants perceive themselves as the party of lesser power. Daniel describes organisations as 'spoilt of choice'. His following words are similar to those of Olivia and Lucy.

Daniel: "(…) no need to advertise a lot or brand themselves to get applicants".

Seen in relation to previous discussed themes, where the candidate is concerned with making an impression and showing their true self, it still comes down to the final choice of the organisation.

Olivia: "You feel vulnerable because you feel you have to show from your best side, but at the same time you don't really have a say".

Attending the site visit holds for an interesting view of this unequal power relationship between candidate and organisation. While Connor, Lucy and Becky describe being asked whether they 'wanted' to attend, Thomas and Olivia uses the word 'summoned' to describe their invitation. The former illustrates a scenario where the candidate has a choice, whereas the latter is more similar to an assumption the organisation take for granted.

All participants acknowledge their occupations attractiveness in "today's labour market", nevertheless this appears more of an expressed statement rather than a lived-by statement. The following two extracts illustrate the discrepancy experienced by participants.

Becky: They want to start recruiting early I assume, in times like these".

Connor: "I didn't feel that significant for the companies".

Noteworthy is the fact that all participants, except for Thomas, place the organisation in the decisive role in regards to a job offer. While Thomas' potential position is bound by specific organisational and individual factors (*As not to comprise participants confidentiality, no further information is disclosed), all the others express doubt as to whether they will even get an offer. Lucy's following words illustrate how the majority of participants did not appear to consider their own choice in the process.

Lucy: "I was constantly thinking about it. What I would hear back, if I would hear back".

The perception of being subject to the organisations final decisions contributes to insecurity and uncertainty on the candidate's behalf. Becky´s words illustrate this vividly, explaining how she felt forgotten in the anticipation of a job offer.

Becky: "If it is normal that it should take this long? Or if maybe they forgot me. I don't think they had forgotten me… Maybe a little".

Despite the awareness of the current labour market, when in the midst of a recruitment process participants consider themselves as just another applicant among the "tons of people want to work at their organisation".

Feeling insignificant

Participants feeling small, insignificant and irrelevant manifests in two directions. It is both a direct consequence of recruiter's actions, as well as characteristics participant's attribute themselves. Daniel's words graphically illustrate the theme on both levels.

Daniel: "Say 6000-7000 applicants for the jobs in this area, so it doesn´t really matter. They won't see you anywhere in the recruitment process and either way they wouldn't remember you, because 1000 students came to their stand".

This quote reflects feeling literally like just one in the crowd, where a lack of individual consideration might contribute to negative emotions. It also implies how participants view themselves: not feeling important enough to stand out.

Participants differ in level of education, salient for those holding 'only' a Bachelor's degree. Organisations clearly distinguish between MSc's and BSc's, exercising their pow