The Role And Functions Of Media Media Essay

Published Date: 23 Mar 2015

The media is analysed in two ways here as an informative aspect as well as a form of entertainment.

Freedom of expression is usually questioned in the media, how 'free' is the media allowed to be? Isn't the media always controlled?

What is the role of media in society?

Is everyone in society treated equally in the media, when being reported on?

Introduction:

It is often a belief that the media is a rather powerful tool, one that gets blamed for all the wrong that occurs in society.

What we read in the papers and view on television is usually what we believe.

This study unit focuses on the functions of the media and what its role in society should be.

In other words the function and the role of the media in society within the context of functionalism as a theoretical paradigm.

1. What is functionalism?:

Definition:

Functionalism refers to a system, a belief in function over form.

Functionalism with regard to the media - refers to how the media operates as a whole 'system' in society to help create a balance in society.

Society as an integrated, harmonious and cohesive whole.

Different social systems function to maintain equilibrium, consensus and social order.

Media as a powerful socialisation instrument should contribute towards integration, harmony and cohesion through information, entertainment and education.

Functions of the media:

Wright's model of functions: Main functions of the media are - to inform and entertain ® this allows the media to contribute manifestly or latently to cultural growth for individuals and society.

Though its rather a simplistic model especially when it comes to the political functions of the media

An example, think of a documentary "Special Assignment" this genre aims to educate and inform society on issues of reality.

® Latent: existing but not yet active or developed.

® Manifest: clear and obvious to see or understand.

MODEL OF FUNCTIONS: Inventory of questions

What are …

1.

The manifest

2.

Latent

3.

Functions and

4.

Dysfunctions of mass communicated

5.

Surveillance (news)

6.

Correlation (selection)

7.

Cultural transmission

8.

Entertainment for the

9.

Society

10.

Individual

11.

Subgroups

12.

Cultural systems?

Objections (Short comings) to Functionalism:

Functionalism takes for granted that agreement prevails over, and disregards conflict in society.

The media will not have the same functions for all the people in society. Interpreted differently by individuals. Cultural barriers could arise when interpreting different media

Functionalism does not account for social change ® well established democratic societies Vs societies in the process of transformation.

Neglects to provide for feedback (seeing that feedback modifies both the message and the context)

MCQUAIL'S TYPOLOGY OF FUNCTIONS:

(Functions / tasks of the media)

Information: the media (can) : with examples

Provide information about events and conditions in society and the world

Indicate relations of power

Facilitate innovation, adaptation and progress

Correlation: the media (can)

Explain, interpret and comment on the meaning of events and information

Provide support for established authority and norms

Socialise

Co-ordinate separate activities

Contribute to consensus building

Set orders of priority and by so doing signal the status of a topic

Continuity: the media (can)

Express the dominant culture and recognise subcultures and new cultural developments

Forge and maintain commonness of values

Entertainment: the media (can)

Provide amusement, diversion and the means of relaxation

Reduce social tension

Mobilisation: the media (can)

Provide social objectivity in issues such as war and politics and economic development

Nevertheless Denis McQuail argues Functionalist models provide us with basic ideas about the role of the media in society.

As such, they provide a structured framework for reviewing the significant tasks of media as key socialization and ideological instruments

Plurality in the media:

Media plurality refers to the diversity in media content available to society.

Media should exist in various forms such as radio, television, and print among other forms catering for all of society.

Think of DSTV as an example ® does a wide range of channels mean a wider range of program content? Are more groups of people catered for with the diversity of channels?

Plurality aims to produce democracy and freedom in the media.

The Political functions of media - the case of Pluralism:

To inform about political developments.

To guide public opinion about political decisions.

To express different views about political development and decisions.

To criticise political developments and decisions.

The media can only be empowered to perform these functions if…

Media policy ensures media pluralism (the existence of different media: various newspapers, radio stations, television stations, magazines, films and so on.

Media content reflect social plurality.

Types:

Internal plurality: differences within the information and entertainment content of newspapers, radio and television stations ® should be balanced, offer different opinions etc.

External plurality: differences between different newspapers, radio and television stations.

Levels:

Micro-plurality:

Concerns each medium on its own; internal; the variety of perspectives and voices within a single outlet.

Like a specific radio station

Meso-plurality:

Concerns media categories; the variety of choices available within the same category.

Macro-plurality:

Concerns all the media, regardless of category, available in a society; the variety of choices.

All media in society

You must understand and be able to explain each theory and to integrate it practically in a case study. In the assignment, you had to integrate a specific theory into the article provided. In the examination you will be given a similar case study and asked to explain the specific theory referred to. Please ensure, therefore, that you familiarise yourself with the various theories.

Media Theories

Normative theory: (theories are concerned with):

Views about the ideal role of the media in society, both to the power structure & the recipient.

Theories are concerned with issues like

Control

Regulation

And objectives of the media

Concerned with restrictions on the media in various situations.

Authoritarian theory:

MAIN press theory

the media according to this theory is controlled and presented according to societies best interests. (Press is a mouthpiece of government)

Dictatorial societies.

Justifies government suppression of the media in extraordinary circumstances

Assumptions:

Media should not undermine government, vested powers and interests

Media should be subordinate.

Should not contravene prevailing moral and political values.

Censorship is justified.

Editorial attacks on government = criminal offences.

The media under these governments should propagandise the government's ideology.

E.g like Hitler and in Zimbabwe

Analyse article and then integrate the normative media theory, namely the Libertarian theory into article below. Explain the Libertarian theory; practically integrate the belief in the theory into article (describe how journalists reporting on this case tie into the belief of the Libertarian theory.

Libertarian theory:

Provides a philosophical basis for the on-going, three-way relationship between the news media, government and society.

This duty and right seeks to maximize the freedom of the press, and in effect be a watchdog towards the state.

MAIN press theory

Media should be able to publish what they see fit, the media is also allowed to publish information against the ruling power and society should interpret the messages accordingly. (Example of article)

People are rational beings capable of distinguishing between truth and falsehood, and between good and evil. Give them all factual information and let them decide. (Example of article)

Its the responsibility of the media to keep the citizens of a country duly informed of the actions of its government. By having written this article, Boyle is performing this duty set out by the libertarian theory.

Assumptions:

The media is a source of information.

The media is a platform for expression of divergent opinions.

Free from government control.

Media should be free from external censorship.

Should be accessible to any individual or group.

Editorial attacks should not be punishable.

No coercion to publish anything.

No restrictions on the acquisition of information.

No restrictions on import and export of information across borders

The media should be free from censorship that is external from it, so that certain officials from a political party can't restrict or delete certain remarks that were made to the public because they would want to dictate what the public reads and what not.

- Publication should be free without a licence for the people reading the material. There are no restrictions like this in South Africa currently.

- If there are any "editorial attacks" on government it should not be punishable; this paves the way for free speech like the article of Boyle, giving his opinion and informing the public.

- There should be no compulsion to publish anything as this will give an unjust and skew view of what is happening in South Africa. With parties exerting their power to help their own cause.

- The "acquisition of information" should not be restricted if they are obtained through legal channels. For instance the number of South African Police Service members that were suspended because of corruption - those are available thus it can be published if the journalist wishes and to inform the public.

- There should be no restriction so that information about the country may or may not be imported or exported.

Social responsibility theory:

Variation of first 2 theories

media should be equal and fair in its reporting of incidents and issues. It must be diverse and responsible towards society.

Based on the following premises:

Reconcile the ideas of freedom and independence with responsibility towards society.

Media should support democratic political principles.

Create a form for different viewpoints.

Should meet certain standards.

How?

Through regulatory bodies, independent of government. (E.g. ICASA for broadcast and telecommunication and the Press Ombudsman for newspapers.)

Professional bodies such as the South African National Editors Forum (SANEF)

Basic principles:

Media should accept responsibility towards society.

Set professional standards (truth, accuracy, objectivity, balance)

Self-regulate

Avoid information that could lead to crime, violence or social disruption. Not offend ethnic or religious minorities.

Be representative of all social groups. Reflect the diversity of society.

Intervention if the media fail to meet these standards.

Soviet communist theory:

Variation of first two theories

Media must work and be owned by the working class.

Main assumptions:

Act in the interest of, and be controlled by the working class.

Media should not be privately owned.

Socialisation, education, information, motivation, mobilisation.

Media should respond to needs of recipients.

Society can use censorship.

Marxist-Leninist view of society must be reflected in programming.

Supporting progressive (communist) movements

Development theory:

Independent of these theories because of the unique conditions in third world countries

Individuals as well as minority groups must be catered for by the media.

Basic assumptions:

Media should make a positive contribution to the national development process.

Economic development and society should be more important than press freedom.

National, cultural and language issues should be high on the media's agenda.

Media should give preference to information about other developing countries that are geographically, culturally and politically akin to each other

Journalists have both responsibilities and liberties in obtaining and distributing information

State has the right to intervene by restricting and censoring the media. State subsidiaries and direct control is justifiable

The Media Development and Diversity Agency in South Africa

Democratic participant theory:

This is the outcome of the shortcomings in these theories

Reaction against commercialisation and monopolies

Against centralisation and bureaucracies in public broadcasting

Developed societies

EMPHASIS

Media multiplicity

Small-scale use of media; media's local nature

De-institutionalising the media

The reciprocal role of communicator and recipients

Horizontal communication

Interaction and involvement

PRINCIPLES:

Right of access and right to have needs served by the media

Content should not be politically influenced

Justified in terms of needs and interests of recipients

Groups, orgs and communities should have their own media

Small-scale, interactive and participatory forms of media are more beneficial. Local content

Social needs are neglected by established media

Communication is too important to be left to the professionals

Rethinking normative theory:

Theories of the functions and roles of the media fall into 2 types of theory:

those prescribing normative tasks for the media in society (the theories mentioned above)

those describing the real role of the media in society

(there are 5 possible paradigms)

Liberal-individualist paradigm: emphasis is on individual liberty and upholding democracy.

Social responsibility paradigm: the media should contribute to the upliftment of society and its citizens.

Critical paradigm: the media should question prevailing and oppressive ideologies.

Administrative paradigm: emphasis on professionalism.

Cultural negotiation paradigm: emphasis on the rights of subcultures.

The media can play one or more of the following roles:

® Collaborative

young and insecure nation, collaborate towards development ideals, nation building and national interest, usually the role the governments want the media to play

® Surveillance

adversarial role, watch-dog and agenda-setter, the media exposes violations of moral and social violations

® Facilitate

create and sustain public debate

® Critical / dialectical

Journalists examine assumptions and premises of a community. Constitute public debate about prevailing political order

New thinking about normative theory:

Normative theories are changing. It is being questioned by post-modern and post-colonial perspectives:

The post-modern perspective: A new media environment

In post modern societies the distinction between public and private is blurred, in other words it is difficult to recognise a coherent population with shared values and a single ideal.

New channels of public communication have introduced a

Multi-media approach, (new technology) interactivity

Commercialisation - market driven - what is interesting, not what is important.

Popular culture. New genres - infotainment, talk shows, reality tv. Like Idols and Survivor

A shift in social responsibility - from public organisations (broadcasters) to commercial enterprises.

Pluralised society.

Acknowledgment of difference and diversity

EXAMPLE: Even democracy is seen to be in crisis. Ideal democracy is being questioned Ideal democracy is being questioned as it has become much more fluid and evolving.

Democracy in South Africa is also seen as complex and diverse - why?

"For the post modernists, both society and the media have become so complex, diverse and abundant with choices, so overloaded with media genres, outlets, products, meanings and messages, that normative media theory had lost its grip." (Fourie 2007:206)

The post-colonial perspective: de-westernising

Colonial: Relating to the colonies of the former British Empire

Post colonial: Existing or occurring after the end of colonial rule and the gaining of political independence.

This is seen as a product of the Western way of thinking about the role of the media in society

the idea of ``de-Westernising'' media theory and specifically normative media theory is not new

Post-colonialism and comparative theory provide the groundwork for investigating

ubuntuism in South Africa (Africa) as a framework for changing normative theory from an Afro-centric viewpoint.

Some norms set for the media can be regarded as very Eurocentric and bias.

"It emphasises the need to develop comparative theories that consciously avoid ethnocentric bias, to focus on elements that appear to be universal in most societies."

Revisiting normative media theory in South Africa:

Although the post-modern argument is eagerly adopted by the South African market, post-colonial theory provides a foundation for investigating the philosophy of Ubuntu in SA as a framework for the revision of normative theory, using an Afro-centric perspective.

Ubuntuism as an African moral philosophy. (why or why not can it work as a normative theory)

What is Ubuntu as a normative theory:

Ubuntuism places the emphasis on sharing and participation in collective life, which is in contrast to Western individualistic freedom of the self.

"A person is defined with reference to the community" or "A person is born for the other".

Emphasis on community and collectively.

We need to be careful not to ``see'' collectivism in the sense of communism or socialism, but rather to see the individual as a unique centre of shared life.

Community is the context in which personhood is defined.

Negotiation, inclusiveness, transparency and tolerance.

Ubuntu as a normative theory:

when it comes to mass communication the emphasis is on community and collectivity

when it comes to public interest the emphasis is on the community

A media that provides freedom of expression, space for the concerns, ideas and opinions of the community.

Freedom of expression is measured in terms of the wellbeing of the community.

When it comes to public interest, the same emphasis would be placed on the community.

Thus Stimulating citizen and community participation.

It is therefore important that the journalist should act (ethically) in harmony with the morality or principles of the community.

This is therefore a journalism that does not place a high value on objectivity. The journalist needs to get involved in dialogue with the community. Whatever goes to print should be assessed in terms of the impact of the story on the community.

Fourie (2007) argues that South Africa should adopt the post-modern acknowledgement of difference and diversity.

In this way South African media would reflect the realities of South African society.

In practice this requires reporting that:

Stimulates interaction among citizens and reporters - and between citizens and politicians

Enables people to come to terms with their everyday experiences

Acknowledges the complexity of a matter or an issue

Is not the hurried conclusion of an observer

Penetrates the moral dynamics underlying the issue

Is interpreted against the background of the community's contexts, beliefs, values and needs.

Ubuntu's role:

Bonding a community

Dialogue towards reaching consensus based on the social values and morals in and of a community

SA suited for postmodern thought, thus including UBUNTU

How does ubuntuism differ from the functions and social responsibility of the media in western normative theory?

Western media thought and focus:

Information, surveillance, entertainment and educational roles

Media freedom and right to protection in order to be able to fulfil its social responsibility

The individual right to information, surveillance, entertainment and education

The emphasis thus moves:

From the media as informant, gatekeeper, entertainer and educator TO media as mediator

From the media as observer TO the media as participant and negotiator.

May have negative consequences for freedom of expression:

Fourie mentions

May have severe media restrictions, (as in the history of apartheid where the country excluded the majority from rights) with regard to patriotic media

Distinctiveness of ubuntu as an African moral philosophy compared to Western communitarianism and its associated civic journalism

Changed nature of contemporary African culture and values, values often far removed from traditional African culture and values

Political misuse of moral philosophy

Nature of media in a globalised world and the changed nature of the media landscape needs to be considered.

Entertainment:

Much of the media produced today serves for the purpose of entertainment

Inform and educates on a latent and manifest level

the five motifs prerequisite for experiencing pleasure and gratification

identity, = entertainment focuses on human relations

ability, = gives problem-solving possibilities

survival, =awareness of eternal values (freeing from anxiety about destruction and death)

understanding = of reality and knowledge. shedding new light on reality (you're not alone)

From a rhetorical perspective the individual determines their interpretation of entertainment ® according to identity, social relation

You can consider family series, police and action dramas or situation comedies, soap operas, game shows,

From a behavioural perspective

entertainment is associated with the human ability to identify with others

project and introject feelings

but also with distancing from others

Entertainment also makes a visual impact on the viewer

Viewers become outsiders (not participants)

Entertainment content (like any form of play) is always voluntary.

Introjection = viewer adopts feelings of other party

Projection = viewer projects feelings on other party (actors, characters)

People are entertained when they produce their own opinions on these situations.

Study Unit 5 (Chap 5) - The Effects of mass communication (Effect Studies)

Importance of understanding media effects:

Strategic importance: to understand that messages - specific response - certain circumstance = strategically important in political, social awareness, marketing and advertising campaigns.

Scientific importance: contributes to the beneficial use of the media for the improvement of people's circumstance and society in general

Ethical importance: Responsibility of communication workers to know about the possible consequences of their work on the lives of people and society

Effects studies seek to discover describe and explain the media's specific effects on our behaviour and thinking in a specific way.

E.G. The impact of pornography, violence and / or crime portrayed in and by the media on people's behaviour.

Makes use of mainly quantitative research techniques such as content analysis, survey research.

CATEGORISING MEDIA AFFECTS:

Write a paragraph in which you discuss the media effects that can be identified in these articles.

Behavioral effects:

Cognitive effects

Media messages can affect our knowledge and thinking about something (e.g. thinking about racism)

Affective effects

Media messages can affect our feelings about something (e.g. child abuse, terrorism, violence.)

Cognitive effects

Media messages can affect our behaviour towards something or someone (e.g. contribute to political rising against a government, org or group

Manifest and latent effects

Manifest - when we know that we have been influenced by media messages

Latent - when we are not aware of its influence

Intended and unintended effects

May have been planned to achieve a specific effect (e.g. HIV awareness campaign may be intended to warn people against disease

Or not planned or intended (e.g. May teach certain people how to spread the disease

Time-scale effects

Short term message exposure

Exposure to single message like one programme - after that person forgets about it

Intermediate message exposure

Exposure to a series of related messages like a series on TV - (e.g product campaign, stopping smoking)

Long term exposure

Many exposures to related messages over time (e.g. media violence, pornography or awareness of environmental issues) may change our response or behaviour over a long time

McQuail main kinds of media-induced effects:

Intended change

Unintended change

Minor change (intended or not)

Reinforcing what already exists (no change)

The media can prevent change

Planned and unplanned effects:

Planned effects:

Propaganda

An ongoing campaign to influence people's minds by focusing on negative aspects of an opponent / topic. Withholding positive or objective information

E.g. in the political arena'

Agenda-setting

Framing

Media campaigns

An advertising campaign to promote a specific product or educational development.

E.g. Topic people knew initially little or nothing about like global warming and its effects

Knowledge distribution

Unplanned effects:

The media's contribution to cultural change

The media's contribution to Socialisation

Reality defining - the media's interpretations of the realities of daily life and how we should understand them

Media violence - if the film or tv programme causes violent behaviour in an individual or amongst group

The media's contribution to Institutional change

The media's contribution to Collective reaction

Effect theories:

Short-term theories: The hypodermic needle theory

Two-step-flow theory

The uses and gratification theory

Long-term theories: Accumulation theory

Diffusion of innovation theory

Modelling theory

Social expectation theory

Meaning theory

Stereotype theory

Agenda-setting theory

Framing

Spiral of silence theory

List the theories and briefly discuss

Also list some of own examples to illustrate the theories discussed

1. Short-term theories:

The hypodermic needles theory:

What do the media do to people?

Certain values, ideas and attitudes are injected into the individual media user, resulting in particular behaviour. The recipient is seen as a passive and helpless victim of media impact.

Anomie - state to which a group or individual is prone when they feel that their accepted values, norms and culture is threatened

Usually in countries in the throes of change. New legislations and media reports on them extensively, reflecting on thinking of society, infusing moral debates often to the point of mass hysteria. (e.g. Malema AWB.)

Two-step-flow theory:

What do people do to the media?

Mediating factors.

Media users are not at the mercy of the media, but selectively expose themselves on the basis of culture, education, expectations etc. Thus exposing themselves selectively to what they agree to or understand

Family, colleagues and friend filter media users' interpretation and experience, acting as buffer for one-sided interpretations

Opinion leaders represent a further buffer

In a commercial media system, media represents a divergent of interpretations on a certain topic

The uses and gratifications theory:

What do people to with the media?

Diversion

As a distraction to escape from their routines and problems

The gratification is an emotional release of a temporary nature

Personal relations

Interaction with others, discussing what they have read, seen or listened to

The gratification is one that provide content of companionship and sociability

Personal identity

Media content is used to explore, challenge, adjust or confirm personal identity

Use content to compare themselves and their values and situations with those of others

Surveillance

Media users need and get information about issues that can affect them directly or indirectly

The gratification is one that satisfies the need for information about immediate and distant world circumstances

2. Long-term theories:

Accumulation theory:

Media focus (a newspaper or different newspapers by example)

- repeatedly + consistent + over a long period, focus on a specific topic= changes in beliefs, attitudes and behaviour.

Focus attention and produce messages on specific problems or issues (E.g. race, discrimination, the environment, social habits, crime, divorce, style, sex, politics)

Over extended period of time focus stays and presentation corroborate each other

Individuals become aware of these messages, and a growing comprehension develops of the interpretations by the media

New beliefs and attitudes slowly emerge to provide significant changes in norms of appropriate behaviour related to the topic.

Diffusion of innovation theory:

Applies to mass comm. in two ways:

1) The media itself is an innovation

New forms must be adopted by people. (E.g. the cellular phone and the Internet, digital television)

The role of the media in spreading new innovations.

E.g. ideas, fashions, beliefs and fads

Adoption stage process:

Awareness stage:

Learn of innovation's existence from mass media, but lacks detailed information

Interest stage:

People interested begin to seek additional information. Media often providing info.

Assessment stage

People interested use the additional info to evaluate the innovation in terms of their expected future situations.

Trial stage

People interested apply the innovation on a small scale to determine utility (also political theory)

Adoption stage

Innovation is acquired and used on a full scale by a few people. After that increasing numbers adopt it and accumulation of users follows an S-shaped curve that slowly started but rises quickly and then levels down.

Modelling theory: (social learning)

In some cases some people can adopt media-portrayed behaviour as a model for their own.

Media users encounters a person (model) is portrayed in media presentation (e.g. movie star, politician, ordinary persons, sport)

User identifies with the model, wanting to be like the model.

User remembers and reproduces the actions of the model

When reproducing activity, it results in some reward - which is a positive reinforcement for user.

Positive reinforcement increases the possibility that the user will reproduce behaviour

Social expectation theory:

Compared to modelling theory, which is more concerned with personal behaviour, the emphasis in social expectation theory is on the adoption of social norms and roles as portrayed by the media.

Through media we can over time learn that social norms adhere to certain groups, people and organisation in society. (e.g seeing how a newly wed couple or doctor behaves.)

Media often portray social activities and group life

Representations of reality reflect, accurately or poorly the nature of many kinds of groups in society (soap operas)

Through period of time, the user receive unintended lessons about the norms and roles within groups

Learned expectations concerning appropriate behaviour serve as guides to action when they encounter such a group in real life.

Meaning construction theory:

How the media conditions us to attach certain meanings to objects, words and concepts. Links labels (e.g. words) to meanings. (e.g global warming, ozone layer, star wars, software, hardware - learning new social cultures from the media) - can be over simplified and one-sided.

Media describes objects in ways that link labels (language symbols such as words) to meanings

User is exposed to label and undergoes some change in personal interpretation

User communicates with others using the label and media influenced meaning. Thus further shaping among other members of society

Strengthened through interpersonal communication, such meaning become social convention, adopting its meaning.

By individual behaviour the media have played an indirect, significant long-term role in shaping people's thoughts and actions

Stereotype theory:

The role of the media in creating and sustaining stereotypes of certain people, organisations and groups - how it affects out perceptions.

Through entertainment, political journalism related to a specific group etc - the media can present us with negative portrayals of the group. (E.g. gay marches and ethnic rituals such as the annual reed dances.)

Portrayals tend to be consistently negative, showing fewer positive characteristics than members of dominant group

Portrayals are similar among the various media, providing corroboration

Portrayals provide constructions of meaning for media users - especially those who have limited contact with actual stereotyped group

Users then incorporate these meanings into their memories, which they then use when thinking about or responding to any individual in portrayed category - regardless of their actual personal characteristics

Agenda-setting theory:

this theory it is claimed that the media provide media users with a daily agenda on what's on, what's important, what to think about and how to think about it.

In this process certain topics and issues are raised to a level of greater significance than others. . (E.g. writing stories about crime, Aids and corruption gives the image that society is falling apart) For example, by focusing on corruption in developing countries the media set an agenda for people to think about developing countries only in terms of corruption.

Focuses on what topics the media present to an audience

And how the information on the selected topics are presented

Concerned with how the media's legitimisation of issues and events affects our perceptions of reality.

Political reporting

Framing:

How the media's deliberate framing on an issue, affects our perceptions.

This theory is closely related to agenda setting and refers to the way in which the media report in a specific and deliberate way about a topic, a person or a group in order to create a very specific image and perception of that person, group or topic.

How the media advocates an issue, say focus negatively (or positively) on attributes of a politician.

With new interactive Medias, like blogs and newspapers and chat rooms, question may be asked to what extent participants contribute to framing.

Spiral of silence:

How the media create a specific image of what the public opinion is and how media users accept that to be the public opinion.

Society threatens deviant individuals with isolation

Individuals experience fear of isolation continuously

However, because of their fear of isolation they remain silent. This gives the impression that they go along with opinions expressed by the media. Their silence has a spiralling effect in that the opinions expressed by the media are seen to be the prevailing public opinion.

Thus suggesting that the opinion expressed by the media is the dominant public opinion.

E.g. the media may claim that the public opinion is against the view that AIDS is caused by poverty (and not a virus)

3. What is a stereotype?

"the social classification of particular groups and people as often highly simplified and generalised signs, which implicitly or explicitly represent a set of values, judgements and assumptions concerning their behaviour, characteristics or history"

Ask yourself the following:

• Why do we tend to think in stereotyped ways about other people and groups?

• Why do we simplify and generalise to such an extent that stereotypes become an unquestioned part of our way of thinking about people and groups?Use Claude Levi Strauss's theory of binary oppositions and Roland Barthes theory of social myth

From these theories we can deduct that stereotypes are:

The result of emphasising oppositions and differences between people and groups.

Have the purpose of strengthening myths about people and groups.

Generalisation and simplification - denial of individuality

May be negative or positive

Social consequences

Those who employ them consider them to be true.

Two theories that can contribute to our understanding of stereotypes

Claude Levi-Strauss and the theory of binary oppositions (p 249-252).

View is that the nature of humankind is to think, interpret and make sense of the world and others in terms of binary oppositions.

Binary oppositions - the meaning of something depends on its opposite. (E.g. good / bad; rich / poor; belief / disbelief; order / chaos; hate / love etc.)

Society's collective practice of laws, rules and values directs individual behaviour.

Society's collective existence determines a person's individuality.

The individual abides by the norms and values of a collective existence. Anything that threatens this collectiveness is experienced as negative.

Our reaction - retreat, combat, humiliate.

Each society can understand oppositions and can express them. These values are reflected in society's symbolic works, including the media.

Binary oppositions can be clearly seen in the media. (E.g. Good Vs Bad in soaps or police dramas.)

The 'we and they' factor when it comes to editorials in newspapers.

Summary: According to Levi-Strauss, we define the world in terms of oppositions. This is done from the perspective of one's own values which are usually rooted in the values of the group one belongs to.

If the emphasis is only one opposition then the result is a stereotyped view of others.

Myths: ® Stereotypes are mythical in nature.

® A myth is a narrative, fable or a story without foundation that often teaches us something. (E.g. Robin Hood)

® What about programmes on TV? We can say they are basically the same.

Binary oppositions and myth is intended to show that a universal logic lies at the root of our thinking.

Roland Barthes and the theory of social myth (p 252-265).

View is that we think about and interpret our world and others according to socially constructed meanings and values.

Socially constructed values - myth here is not so much a non-truth.

A myth is a socially constructed truth - with an underlying ideological meaning, aimed at maintaining a status quo.

Societies create and maintain myths for the sake of their own survival (and often at the cost of others).

In generating myth (say wine is drunk by the French, like tea is drunk by the British) cultures seek to make their own norms seem facts of nature.

For example, braaivleis - the social scientist should not be concerned with the qualities and effect of say the braaivleis, but with the image or second order meaning (mythical meaning) given to braaivleis - by the social conventions of a particular culture.

Myth here signifies many layers of meaning associated with a culture. (Seeing a photograph of white people attending a braaivleis can embody meanings associated with Afrikaner culture, Afrikaner history, and Afrikaner values including political values.

As a communication scientist should not be interested with the product being advertised by the media, but in the meanings associated through social convention with the product and with the meanings associated with its possession and consumption. (e.g. driving a certain car…)

Media played a role in strengthening these myths - in apartheid stereotyping black people in a negative way.

Can conclude that on the basis of the above theories:

the result of emphasising oppositions

based on myths, and are mythical in nature

Five Characteristics and working of stereotypes:

Stereotypes depend on generalisation and simplification - a denial of individuality. (E.g. All gays are promiscuous, all Jews scheming)

Stereotypes may be negative or positive (both can blur one's perception about a person) (E.g., subordination, isolation, living up to the stereotype (which will reinforce the stereotype)

Stereotypes have very real and mainly negative social consequences for the group or individual in a stereotyped group (E.g. Jews may isolate themselves, gays may play the role of promiscuous out)

Stereotypes lead to unqualified verdicts about people and groups.

Stereotypes are considered to be the truth.. Say it's not stereotypes but the archetypical truth.

What is the difference between archetype and stereotype?

Archetype is an ancient primordial (ancient) image.

Ideas / experiences / opinions which are inherited and may have a genetic basis in the unconscious mind.

Inborn orientations (E.g. good vs evil) Jungian views.

Stereotype is socially and ideologically constructed and can be changed.

What is the origin of stereotypes?

For example, what is the origin of stereotypes about black people from a Western perspective?

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

THE THEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Thomas Hobbes - S American Indians were envisioned as "Warewolves"

"barbaric, savage, wild, primitive"

The 'other' is emphasised

Christian religion - children of Ham justified black slavery in 16th and 17th century

Interpretations form the Book of Genesis (17th & 18th century) implies that Adam and Eve's offspring are continents (Africa - Ham, Asia - Shem, and Europe - Japheth) personified

Stereotypes are deeply rooted in:

People's thinking at a point in time

Social, political and economic ideologies

Theological interpretations and dogma

Animal like South American Indians, strengthened because they were naked, clothes and utility articles being Western signs and barometers of civilisation.

Stereotypes are deeply rooted in:

- people's thinking at a specific point in time (anthropological (above) and theological interpretations)

- social, political and economic ideologies

- theological interpretations and dogma

Whereas our example to illustrate how stereotypes originate is of racial stereotypes, the same can be said of other stereotypes such as stereotypes of gender and sexual orientation. They are all founded on time-based thinking, and on social, ideological and often theological dogma and interpretations.

Because stereotypes are time-bound and based on ideology and dogma, it is emphasised that it is important for media practitioners, critics and users to reflect critically on their own prejudices. In the case of media analysis and criticism,

consideration should given to: …..

The need to contextualise media representation:

Before you judge media representations as being stereotypes first consider:

The unique characters and nature of the medium.

The specific genre of the text in which a so-called stereotyped representation may occur.

The complex relationship between reality and representation.

The motive of the communicator.

The nature of perception and the eye of the beholder.

How can stereotypes be changed?

Be critical of our own views.

Sensitive toward the feelings of others.

Be aware of the possible harm our views and perceptions can cause for others.

On a more concrete level:

Establish codes of conduct, to guide their representations.

Look at employment policy (mix of staff can counterbalance stereotyped interpretations)

Programme policies and quotas. (different races in television programmes)

The right of reply or object and the obligation to publish or make known the objection and the outcome of the investigation. Objections should be published and broadcast.

A cautionary note about effect theories and research:

Methodological questions.

Humans are not quantifiable.

Effects research should be done over a long period of time.

Research mainly by surveys and questionnaires, interviews and experimental methods

So far these methods have had difficulties to conclusively establishing a direct causal relation between media and behaviour. (e.g. such as voting patterns)

Contextualisation.

Findings and conclusions must be contextualised.

Effects the media may have in the USA are not necessarily the same in South Africa, with our different contexts circumstance.

South Africa is a developing country and has far less exposure to media. We have low levels of literacy.

Limited assumptions.

Effect studies are based on certain limited assumptions such as "the media user is helplessly exposed to and at the mercy of the media.

Also known as caught up in a stimulus-response relationship with the media.

Such an assumption is based on two behaviourist theories: (taking violence in the media as an example, may also be behavioural patterns, emotions or values and morals portrayed)

Catharsis theory:

Portrayal of violence by the media can result in a release of aggression by the viewer

Thus acting as a safety valve for such negative emotions

Mimesis theory:

Media users imitate violent behaviour in real life

Regard it as sanctioning their own aggressive conduct

Effect research is time-consuming and expensive.

Effect research usually uses empirical survey and experimental research techniques that do not necessarily provide for the analysis and description of complex cognitive processes.

Findings and conclusions need to be contextualised in depth.

Effect research is often based on limited assumptions.

In light of the view that media users are not the helpless victims of the media, numerous variables contributing to possible behaviour must be taken into account.

Discuss and explain Gauntlett's ten points of criticism against the effect paradigm

Gauntlett's criticism against media effects research The effects model… :

Tackles social problems backward;

One should start with an analysis of the social problem not with the media's portrayal of it.

Treats children as inadequate;

though they can make thoughtful, critical and 'media literate' video productions themselves

Is characterised by barely concealed conservative ideology;

Critics that condemn screen violence, may say that because of concerns for a political cause, such as 'disrespect for authority' and 'anti-patriotic sentiments

Inadequately defines its own objects of study;

Definitions frequently used in effect studies such as 'anti-social' are often value judgements based on conservative ideology.

Who defines concepts and categories of analysis such as 'verbal aggression' and 'act of violence'?

Based on artificial studies;

Research in a laboratory test means viewers may be decontextualised from their natural media use and environment

Based on studies with misapplied mythology;

Wrong or inappropriate research techniques are used

Is selective in its criticisms of media depictions of violence;

Why just focus on violence in fictitious programmes and not on violence portrayed in news broadcasts?

Assumes superiority to the masses;

Researchers almost never say that they have been affected in the ways that they propose the media affects people.

Are researchers superior to ordinary media users?

Makes no attempt to understand meanings of the media;

Researchers assume medium holds a singular message carried to audiences. It ignores polysemic nature of media and reception theory of how people interpret media messages in different ways.

Not grounded in theory;

Basic question of why the media should induce people to imitate its content has never been tackled adequately.

Study Unit 7 (Chap 9)

- Globalisation, Information and Communication Technology and the Media

- Discuss giddens theory of globalisation by focusing on the following; definition of globalisation; disembedded organisations, modernisation, time space distanciation, two types of disembedment Assignment Q.

- various economics trends that have due to the process of globalisation and the development of information communication technology. Focus on the trends of concentration, convergence, liberalisation, privatisation, internationalisation, and commercialisation. must be able to integrate relevant examples with your discussion of the various economic trends.

To fully understand Gidden's theory of globalisation you need to read the full chapter 09 as an overview. See Fourie (2007:352) on the four major institutional complexes when it comes to globalisation and modernisation. The two types of disembedment are discussed in Fourie (2007:353-354). Could you give relevant examples? Do you (for example) understand how communication technology plays a central role in globalisation and how it leads to local cultural identity? Also, do you agree that it is a product of human inspiration? What is your view about globalisation widening inequalities? You were required to explain the theoretical concepts, but substantiate them and explain further with relevant and recent examples from the media.

What is Globalization? According to Giddens

Definition:

"A social process (still continuing) involving people all over the world whose lives are affected on a daily basis by disembedded (not local or national) organisations"

Globalisation is an all-encompassing phenomenon involving economic, political, technological and cultural transformation.

Disembedded organisation (Key characteristic)

Means organisation has one defining characteristic that it is international by nature

Thus not local or national.

At the very root of globalisation lies the multinational company or disembedded organisation as Giddens calls them. These organisations comprise of many different nationalities, cultures and counties. With offices located all over the world, these companies provide society not only with services and products, but also with information and entertainment.

E.g. MTV or CNN as it broadcasts all over the world or McDonalds and Coca Cola that is international

Globalisation started with modernism caused by major changes in 4 major institutional complexes:

Modernism (Modernisation):

Giddens argues that four major institutional complexes were what led to modernisation, which in turn led to globalisation

Administrative power

Feudal systems were replaced by secular nation states its physical boundaries defined geographically. (E.g. Japan because the sense of national identity and shared language, confided within geographical boarders.)

Industrialization

Moved from agriculture to industrial production (Knowledge of new innovations were spread)

Capitalism

Because of industrialization concepts were introduced like - "private ownership", "competition", "profit, "profit-making" (eternal race of profit-making)

Militarism

warfare mechanized, professional armies were introduced and, mass production of weapons.

Three aspects of modernisation and reason for disembedment: (delocalisation, deculturalisation, detradionalisation)

1. Changes in time-space distanciation:

Pre-modern compared to modern society: pre-modern (seasons / village) Vs modern (clock/global) society.

- PRE-MODERN SOCIETY

MODERN SOCIETY

TIME

- Linked to seasons and seasonal change.

- No clock and no conceptualization of national and international time.

The invention of the clock changed people's conceptualization of time.

Time no longer seasonally linked or linked between day and night.

The clock not based on seasonal time but on artificial social time.

Time is linear and not cyclical.

Time measured globally and not locally.

This is also introduced a sense of cultural distance. (E.g. at 8.30pm in South Africa, in parts of Europe is it 9.30pm.

SPACE

- Space confined to the local: the farm, the village ® thus a narrow sense of space, both geographically and socially.

- People seldom moved beyond the borders of their particular communities.

- Ideas of space were fixed: people hardly knew about "other parts of the world" ® the majority of people (mainly peasants) were embedded in their local communities.

The inventions of the clock also started to change our sense of space as communities began to attune their sense of time with other communities. People increasingly began to move beyond the borders of their local communities.

STATUS

- Social status was ascribed at birth, be is peasantry, landlord, royalty.

- There was little sense of what we today know as a career.

The concept of "social mobility" is introduced.

2. Symbolic tokens:

Money as an example:

Pre-modern ® exchange of goods and products to acquire goods.

Modern ® payment in symbolic token (money) - movable, think of Euro and credit cards as a global from of payment.

3. Reliance on expert systems:

We are becoming reliant on expert systems:

Relying more on technology

A general increase in specialisation

Looking for a universal system or model to help us plan our existence

In the apartment one lives, one trusts the experts that it is structurally

In Education

Health (medical science to solve problems and make our lives easier. Like AIDS how to combat it

In your own words

To summarise:

The process of globalisation started with the move from pre-modern to modern societies.

Modernisation brought along changes in the ways in which people were governed (administrative power); the way they produced and manufactured goods (industrialisation); the way they sold goods - with profit-making as a primary goal (capitalism); and the way in which warfare was produced and armies constituted.

Among many contributing factors, it was the invention of the clock which began to change people's conceptualisation of time and space from the seasonal and local to an awareness of global time and other communities, locations and geographies.

These changes also contributed to new symbolic tokens (of which we have only referred to as money) and the introduction of expert systems.

Eight Characteristics (or trends) of globalisation:

New world economic order - local economies integrated globally. (Oil price, R / $ rate.)

Technology - internet, satellite tv.

Personal lives - global views question traditional views.

Local cultural identity - revival not disappearance. (SA Afrikaans music industry.)

Product of humanity - not forced on us by nature. (International communication helped destroy apartheid, Washington Post / Zim.)

Inequality - widens, Americanisation.

Reversed colonialism - easier to gain access to other countries ® this changes the make-up of populations.

Nation state - becoming weaker? Other factors influencing economies, policies of governments, beyond control?

Cosmopolitan society - nations, cultures and families change. Families and cultures can now be spread and live across the world. Cultures incorporate other cultures from across the globe. (Hip Hop, rock, slang, expressions, views, expectations.)

New world economic order:

Globalisation involves economic, political, technological and cultural transformation.

Local economies are integrated into a global economy.

Politics become globally transparent with more interstate and regional agreement.

Increased technological developments which form the foundation of globalisation.

Cultural diffusion creating a global culture.

Technology:

Communication technology plays a central role in globalisation

It has altered society.

Information images can be disseminated across the world in an instant with the aid of technology

For example, Nelson Mandela is more familiar to some people than their own neighbours.

The reach of media technology is growing.

For example ® it took radio 40 years to reach 50 million listeners, PC's 15 years and the internet 4 years.

Personal lives:

Family structures are transformed…impact on very nature of society

Smaller families (family planning)

Gender roles have changed

Homosexual marriages

Racial discrimination issues

Interests of minority groups are protected

Rise of fundamentalism

Xenophobia, racism, and sexism are topics that are dealt with on a regular basis by the media, and by non-governmental pressure groups.

Local cultural identity:

Revival and rediscovery of cultural / national identities.

Because people may interpret globalisation as a threat to their own cultures.

revival not disappearance - in SA Afrikaans music industry the Afrikaans community is trying to stimulate growth and interest in their culture.

Globalisation is a Product of the human mind:

Globalisation is a product of human inspiration. It is the making of human thinking.

An example is the collapse of Soviet Communism, role of TV was that "television revolutions" started. People in other countries saw the Polish protesting on the street and took to the street themselves.

international communication helped destroy apartheid - Washington Post/Zim

Globalisation may lead to Inequality:

Inequality widens

Globalisation creates a world of winners and losers - a few on the fast track to prosperity, the majority condemned to life of misery and despair

To some globalisation is westernisation.

People living outside the USA and Europe seem to feel that globalisation is a process of Americanisation.

This fact is strengthened by the fact that popular products originate from the West, such as Coca Cola Mtv, Nike and McDonalds.

With transnational corporations even selling dangerous goods in developing countries as these products are banned in the developed countries.

Reversed colonialism:

London, Paris, New York has a mix of citizens. Difficult to recognise "true citizens" - because relaxation of immigration laws and work permits

this changes make-up of populations

The influx of other cultures and races into areas seems to alter the demographic composition of those areas or cities.

There are many reports in the media on the influence of immigrants on British cuisine and books have even been devoted to the topic

Africanisation of JHB.

Nation state:

Is a nation state still in full control of its own policies? Are national political leaders still powerful or relevant? Yes they are, but.

A shift from facing real enemies to facing and managing risks: communication systems, arms agreements, import and export.

The move from facing real enemies to facing managing risks, is a massive shift in the very nature of the nation-state and the role of national political leaders.

International standards are becoming the focus of nation-state.

Examples such as the combating of child pornography on the Internet and preventing global terrorism.

Cosmopolitan society:

Lastly Globalisation may lead to the formation of a global cosmopolitan society

Nation, family, work, tradition, culture have changed.

They have become shell institutions and need to be reconstructed in ways appropriate to the global age.

Families and cultures can now be spread and live across the world. Cultures incorporate other cultures from across the globe. Hip Hop, rock. Slang, expressions, views, expectations.

In brief globalisation has an impact on the media in terms of its content (it includes more recently updated international news) and the fact that technology enables people to access news at any time from any location.

Cell phone and the internet are mobile and can carry media messages across the globe in an instant.

What impact has globalisation had on the media in terms of economic trends?

Rapid development of information and communication technology (ICT) is the most important catalyst of globalisation.

Globalisation and ICT are responsible for the development of international media conglomerates.

Globalisation affects media ownership production, distribution and the changed relationships between the