Pakistan As It Used To Be

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

this study was to dig out the influence of foreign channels, particularly Indian and

western, on the life patterns of female viewers. As a communication technology, cable

television has a great acceptance and is being used extensively in Pakistan. Cable

television viewership is no more restricted to the upper and upper-middle class of

Pakistan as it used to be a few years back.

Being inexpensive and easy to access, cable television spread rapidly in Pakistan.

It has become one of the common household commodities. Therefore, this study

attempted to understand whether demography influenced the viewership patterns of

respondents or not. Kaye (2000) states "A good theory helps predict what will happen in

future by giving practical insight into how the phenomenon being studied works". New

communication theories that explain uses of new technologies are surely needed. As the

new century progresses, the continual challenge for communication theorists will be to

catch up and keep up (Thompson & Bryant, 2002). There was a need of such theories that

could explain the uses and consequences of this new media technology in Pakistan.

Cable television provides a variety of local and foreign channels and helps people

in selecting programmes according to their taste and choice. Therefore, the first part of

this study explored respondents preferred channels and kinds of programmes, reasons for

watching cable television, preferred time of watching and control over the remote. It

justified the application of ‘Uses and Gratification Theory’. This theory identifies cable

television consumption patterns according to needs and satisfaction of targeted class. The

gratification factor leads to the exposure of channels/programmes which in turn can

generate effects.

Main part of the present research comes under the effect tradition. It demands

discussion on theories based on observational learning and information processing

emphasize lasting effects of exposure to media contents. Thus, the study also applies

‘Cultivation Theory’ in terms of effect (which can be small, gradual, indirect but

cumulative and significant) through exposure (depending upon heavy and light

viewership of cable television) and ‘Social Learning Theory’ which says that viewers

attend and learn from models which are attractive, powerful, rewarding and similar to

themselves. They do not usually act immediately on what they learn from television.

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Instead, they store such knowledge to be used when their own circumstances elicit it.

Hence, the framework of this research is based on the set of three theories i.e. Uses and

Gratification Theory, Cultivation Theory and Social Learning Theory. These theories are

discussed below in relation with the present study in brief.

3.1 Uses and Gratification

Utility Theory, often known as the "Uses and Gratifications Approach", offers another

way of explaining why people expose themselves to some communications and not others

(the preferred channels/programmes); why they perceive a fraction of these to which they

are exposed and why they remember –correctly or incorrectly-- only some of these

(effects on lingo). Blumler and Katz’s Uses and Gratification Theory suggest that media

users play an active role in choosing and using media. Users take an active part in the

communication process and are goal-oriented in their media usage. Theorists say that

media users seek out source that best fulfills their needs. Uses and Gratifications Theory

assumes that users have alternate choices to satisfy their needs (Griffin, 2000). Focus of

this theory is that viewers attend, perceive and remember information that is pleasurable

or that will in some way help satisfy their needs. Therefore, this research probed into

which cable television channels and programmes are preferred by the targeted

audience and which of their needs are satisfied by viewing them.

The idea of this study was to look for reasons for the evident appeal of media and

various types of contents by asking the audience what they think, feel and appreciate on

the basis of their personal media usage. The approach was described by Klapper (1960) as

a "functional orientation" which could account for the appeal of "escapist" media content.

He named simple functions of media as providing relaxation, stimulating the imagination,

providing vicarious interactions and providing a common ground for social intercourse.

Variation in motives for attending to media was also studied as variables in effect

research (Bulmer and McQuail, 1968).

Uses and Gratifications Theory takes a more humanistic approach to looking at

the media usage. Blumler and Katz believe that there is not merely one way that the

populace uses media. Instead, they believe there are as many reasons for using media as

there are media users. According to the theory, media consumers have a free will to

decide how they will use the media and how it will affect them. Blumler and Katz believe

that media consumers can choose the influence media has on them as well as the idea that

users choose media alternatives merely as a mean. Uses and Gratifications Theory is the

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optimist’s view of media. The theory takes out the possibility that media can have an

unconscious influence on our lives and how we view the world. The idea that we simply

use media to satisfy a given need does not seem to fully recognize the power of media in

today’s society. (West, R., and Turner, L. H, 2000: 332).

3.1.1 Uses and Effects Model

Communication scholars have developed several different models that attempt to explain

individual level media uses and effects, which is the principal focus of uses and

gratification research. These include the Transaction Model (McLeod and Becker, 1974),

the Gratification Seeking and Audience Activity Model (Rubin, A.and Perse, 1987), the

Expectancy Value Model (Palmgreen and Rayburn, 1982) and the Uses and Dependency

Model (Rubin, and Windahl, 1986).

3.1.2 Uses and Dependency Model

Research has shown that dependency on a medium is the result of two major factors:

viewer motives for obtaining gratifications and the availability of viewing alternatives.

Each of these factors may be affected by any number of social or psychological

characteristics. For example a person with poor health and limited mobility would be

more likely to be dependent upon a medium such as television for entertainment and

diversion than a healthy person who enjoys many different activities. Further, a person

with limited mobility would be more likely to become dependent upon a medium such as

television if he/she did not have access to other media options such as personal computer,

VCR, computer games, etc at his/her home.

The Uses and Dependency Model (Rubin, A. and Windahl, 1986) proposes that

certain elements in media system (e.g. system itself, structure of society and individual

differences that result in highly personal motives) cause people to use and depend upon

media. Dependency upon media may lead to effect in itself. For example, attitude change

might occur and thus affect other elements in the model.

The greater the dependency upon a medium the greater the likelihood that medium

will have effects upon the viewer. M. M. Miller and S. D. Reese (1982) studied political

effects and found that these (effects) were more likely to occur among those who relied

more upon the medium rather than those who did not rely upon it.

Finn, S. (1992) described the motives for media use as falling under one of the

two headings: proactive or passive. Examples of proactive media use and watching a

particular television programme in order to learn more about a specific subject of interest,

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watching a certain movie for the purpose of being entertained or using internet for

information for a project at school or work. In other words, media user actively seeks

something from media based upon his/her wishes, needs and motives. As the name

suggests, passive motives describe the usage of media in a lackadaisical (passive) sense.

For example, sometimes we turn on the television simply because it is there just to "see

what’s on". We are not actively seeking information, entertainment or anything in

particular. This does not mean that we will not be entertained or learn something we very

well might. It only suggests that we did not begin the viewing experience with a particular

proactive motive in mind.

Most recent activity in the area of Uses and Gratification Theory had examined

the motives behind the media usage. In other words, researchers have sought to find out

why people watch television programmes or why they are influenced by some

commercials but not by others. Instead, focusing on what media do to peoples, these

studies question: what do people do with media (Klapper, 1963; Rubin, 1994). K. E.

Rosengren, and Windahl, S. (1972) were among the first to suggest that media uses and

effects should be linked. Research should ask what effects particular gratification may

have or what effects particular uses of media may have. They found that people depend

upon the media to fulfil certain needs such as vicarious experience and escapism or

involvement or interaction.

Other researchers have also suggested that a synthesis of the two research realms

would be logical and beneficial. These research domains are similar in that each examines

the consequences of mass communication from an individual or societal level, changes in

attitudes, perception or behaviour.

Since the mid-1970, research has provided greater understanding of the uses and

effects of mass media. In answer to criticisms regarding lack of uniformity, uses and

effects researchers have adopted similar measures for viewers’ motives. Based upon the

work by B. S. Greenberg (1974) and Rubin (1979), most uses and gratification research

now recognizes the following motives for media use among audience members: learning,

habit, companionship, arousal, relaxation, escapism or a way to pastime (Rubin, 1994).

Studies by Greenberg and Rubin produced similar results. Both found, for example, the

motives for viewing changed with person’s age. Most habitual viewers liked watching

comedies rather than news bulletins. Most viewers seeking excitement tended to watch

action/adventure programmes.

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3.2 Cultivation Theory

This study has used Cultivation Theory by George Gerbner as a guide in exploring the

consequences/effects. Under guidance of this theory, this study may be able to emerge as

a new theory. Essentially, the theory states that heavy exposure to mass media namely

television creates and cultivates attitudes more consistent with a media conjured version

of reality than with what actual reality is. The Cultivation Theory asserts that heavy

viewers' attitudes are cultivated primarily by what they watch on television. Gerbner

views this television world as "not a window on or reflection of the world, but a world in

itself" (McQuail, 1993: 100). Cultivation Theory, in its most basic form, suggests that

television is responsible for shaping or ‘cultivating’ viewers’ conceptions of social reality.

The combined effect of massive television exposure by viewers over time subtly shapes

the perception of social reality for individuals and, ultimately, for our culture as a whole.

Thus, cultivation research is in the effects tradition.

Cultivation theorists argue that television has long-term effects which are small,

gradual, indirect but cumulative and significant. They emphasize the effects of television

viewing on attitude rather than the behaviour of viewers. Heavy watching of television is

seen as ‘cultivating’ attitudes which are more consistent with the world of television

programmes than with the everyday world. Cultivation theorists are best known for their

study of television and viewers and, in particular, for a focus on the topic of violence.

However, some studies have also considered other mass media from this perspective and

have dealt with topics such as gender roles, age groups, ethnic groups and political

attitudes.

George Gerbner stands as the pioneer of the Cultivation Theory. He begins

developing cultivation as a structural piece for the long term examination of public

messages in media influence and understanding. Gerbner clarifies that his objectives are

not with "information, education, persuasion, and the like, or with any kind of direct

communication effect". More accurately, his concern remains with "the collective context

within which, and in response to which, different individuals and group selections and

interpretations of messages take place". Nonetheless, Gerbner’s work presents a Social

Psychology Theory on communication effect on persuasion as related mass media. He

argues that the mass media cultivate attitudes and values which are already present in

culture. Media maintains and propagates these values amongst members of a culture, thus

binding it together. The Cultivation Theory got its start with the cultivation hypothesis,

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created by George Gerbner, which attempts to understand how "heavy exposure to

cultural imagery will shape a viewer's concept of reality" (Pierce, 2007).

Gerbner argues that television has become the central cultural arm of the

American society. "Television set has become a key member of the family, the one who

tells most of the stories most of the time." Gerbner and his associates (Gerbner, Gross,

Morgan and Signorielli, 1994) have written that there are two types of television viewers:

heavy and light viewers.

For heavy viewers, television virtually monopolises and subsumes other sources

of information, ideas and consciousness. Gerbner says that the effect of all this exposure

to the same messages produces what he calls cultivation or the teaching of a common

worldview, common roles and common values. Gerbner presents research supporting

"Cultivation Theory" that is based on comparison between heavy and light television

viewers. Gerbner analysed answers to question posted in surveys and found that heavy

and light television viewers typically give different answers. Further, heavy television

viewers often give answers that are closer to the way the world is portrayed on televisio