Public Engagement A New Paradigm For Public Relations Marketing Essay

Published Date: 23 Mar 2015

Engaging with the public has always been a necessity for PR practitioners to succeed. However, due to the web 2.0, engaging with the public has opened up new channels of communication and therefore a new communication strategy needs to be put into place. As Public Engagement is a relatively new term, no studies have been carried out in this area. The author will look into what Public Engagement is and see if its fit into existing Public Relation models, how organisations engage with their audience , due to the digital web, and if a new Public Engagement model is needed.

Paradigms of PR

A definition of a paradigm in PR is narrow (Burrell and Morgan 1979). "It is seen as a sign of discipline maturing and developing a range of different approaches; at the same time the process is not seen as advanced enough for a full blown paradigm struggle, or debate to be able to take place" (Botan 1993, p.108). A paradigm can be thought of as a model (L'Tang & Pieczka 2006) or 'worldviews' (Grunig). Kuhn (1969) defined it a model or a way of thinking about and studying a problem. He stated that no paradigm is perfect and that facts and figures that do not fit the paradigm does not necessarily nullify the values of the paradigm. According to Kuhn a new paradigm can provide a perspective from which the subject can move on. (

As the term paradigm is still very much a vague area, the author will use the terminology used by academics to describe a paradigm as a model or theory and will find out whether Public Engagement fits into any of the original paradigms of Public Relations.

There have been many communication models put forward and tested over the past 60 years by public relations practitioners. The principal ones being, the Shannon and Weaver model (1949), Shramm's Interactive Model (1954) and Grunig's and Hunt's 4 Models (1984). It is important to look at communication models to see whether Public Engagement is a new paradigm in the digital age or simply an extension of these.

1.3 Shannon and Weaver model

Shannon and Waver's (1949) Mathematical theory of Communication is acknowledged as one of the most important models from which communication studies has grown (Johnson and Klare 1961), albeit biased towards the technical aspects of communication research (John Fiske 1982). This basic model was linear and did not represent reality where senders and receivers have an equal role. In contrast to the above models Schramm went on to create his model which emphasised two-way communication (1954) and introduced the concept of feedback. In problem solving scenarios open ended questions need to be asked in order to gain feedback and results. The model can be criticised as conveying the feeling of equality in communication. This could be rarely seen in practice and communication tends to be unbalanced. While this model was an important breakthrough in PR, it did little to listen to what the public actually needed.

System theories / Four step and Excellence model

System theorists are PR practitioners who develop a theory from experience/being in the organisation. They are concerned with the public in PR decisions. Grunig. J and Hunt.T (1984) are two of the earliest system theorists. From their observations they developed four models of public relations (Edward 2009). These were press agentry /publicist, public information, two-way asymmetric and two way symmetric communications known as the Four Step Model.

2.2i Four step model

Press agentry (one way communication) is a way of communicating a biased message through media channels. (McQuail & Windahl 1993)

Public information (one way communication) similar to press agentry, but transparency in the message is vital; the message is truthful and informative. (McQuail & Windahl 1993)

Two way asymmetric (two way communication) is known as a persuasive tool. The purpose of this is to make the public think in the same way as the organisations. Feedback from the public is used to strength communication strategies. (McQuail & Windahl 1993). The message is unbalanced , it is all about persuasion and is favoured by some advertising companies.

Two way symmetric (two way communication) the two-way symmetric model, (Grunig and Hunt 1984) is probably the most popular and widely used in today's PR industry. This model is one that can build relationships and solve differences. Stakeholders engage with the organisation and can have some power over policies. This model employs research, listening, and dialogue as tools to promote relationships with both internal and external parties. Grunig put ethics the centre of symmetrical communication. (Grunig & Hunt, 1984, p.22 and Grunig et al, 1992, p.55-61).

According to Phillips and Young (2009), social media is causing a new communication paradigm. They believe that communication is shifting from the traditional hierarchical arrangement to an audience model encouraging horizontal discourse. Edelman in his interview Edelman (2009) agreed with this idea. In a survey of PR practitioners in charge of campaigns winning the 2002 Golden World awards from IPRA, it was found that when asked which of the four Public relations models they preferred, no one voted for press agentry model, 6.3% preferred the public information model, 18.8% the two way asymmetric model and the favourite model was the two way symmetrical model where 56.3% voted for it (Horn & Neff 2008 and Okay - PR from theory to practise book).

2.2ii Excellence model

Gruig went on to complete a 10 year study Pr practice and developing a model for 'Excellent Public Relations' ( Grunig 1992) It was found that the most successful Public Relations departments took part or contributed to the strategic decisions of the company.

Once stakeholders had been identified, the study showed that successful Public Relation departments developed programmes to communicate with them. According to Grunig (1992) 'Excellence' is the balance between an organisation and the public. It was seen as the management of communications on a level that aided the strategic management role whilst maintaining the attention and cooperation of the public. As such, the Public Relation role was enhanced and perceived in commercial terms whereby long term relationships could be forged between strategic parties.

This model has been challenged by a number of academics. Philip and Younge (2009) argued that the new Public Relations challenges the Excellence model. L'Etang (2006) was also critical and stated that the power imbalance between organisation and public was a weakness in the theory of two-way communication. Pieczka (2006) criticised the model as she felt that the study was biased to the two way symmetrical model. Pieczka not only critised his two way symmetry but questioned the and questioned the validity of his model. She believed that inconsistencies were apparent. It is clear that Grunig excluded conflicting viewpoints and academics have questioned the research carried out and pointed out that he chose paradigms to fit his model. Obviously Grunig based his model loosely on the systems theory but he did take on board these criticisms and the model was revised over the years (Grunig L, Grunig, JE & Dossier, M, 2002). It is apparent the Excellence theory has had an impact on PR "a leading body of work has developed around Symmetry/Excellence Theory which has probably done more to develop public relations theory and scholarships than any other single school of thought" Botan and Hazleton (2006) (p. 6).

As it was a model that was based on practise in a real life situation, it could be said that this is the model that is real to the industry. As PR has progressed and social media has become a large part in most cases, Public Engagement has taken on a new role, but nevertheless a new communication strategy could be easily adapted from the Excellence model.

2.2 Publics

As audiences are needed for communication to take part it is necessary to look at different types of publics. Grunig and Repper (1992) propose two types of publics, the passive and the active. Active audiences go out of the way to find information on the company and respond. Passive audience do not want to engage with the company, but may if prompted to. This has led many practitioners to explore what methods of communication will prompt and engage these audiences.

Grunig (1983) identified four basic publics:

All issue publics: These publics are concerned with the organisation as a whole and are active on all issues. For example the media

Apathetic publics: Are not aware or interested in the organisation as a whole (Smith 2005)

Single-issue publics : Tend to be active in one area of the organisation

Hot issue publics: are active on a issue that has received a lot of issue in the media

These models all have uses and, they do not always consider what other factors affect why people engage in communication or how to attract the public who are unaware of their product. A further model is needed which could include attitudes, communication behaviour and personal behaviour which could help to recognise new stakeholders. ( Featherstone,Weitkamp,Ling and Burnet 2009 from journal Public Understanding of Science ) http://pus.sagepub.com/content/18/2/214.full.pdf+html

This theory has been criticised by many. It lacks diversity and ignores the power dimensions of organisations and its publics (Lietch and Neilson 2001). Cutlip et al (2000) believe that PR practioneers should operate in an open system, whereby the external environment should be looked at in order for business change to suit their publics.

There appears to be a new kind of publics at the moment and these are named the '21st century consumers' and forming a relationship with them is crucial. They are more demanding than ever and want to receive information differently and share it with their own communities (Soli & Breakenridge 2009)

This new breed has been aided by social media. The social web allows people to communicate and share information and it is important for organisations to be aware of this and monitor conversations, if not, the public will still carry on talking and organisations may miss out . They have come to realise that listening is important. The relationship paradigm leads to trust " It believes that two-way communication that attempts to accommodate both parties, while not abandoning the objectives of the initiative, will result in a much greater understanding of the needs and resources available to target publics" (Martinez, Jr., Belio, n.d) (http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/1/7/2/1/7/pages172179/p172179-10.php )

3.5 Rhetorical perspectives

Rhetorical theory is based on persuasive through discussion. It is a two way conversation between groups with a common purpose and deals with choice. ( Nichols1963)Ethics goes hand in hand with it. Aristole, a Greek philosopher, wrote The Art of Rhetoric, which was the first formal book to define persuasion and the Greek society was governed by the principle of debate and persuasion. Agreement between parties is the ultimate aim but communication and agreement between both parties is necessary. More recently Heath (1980) ( Heath 1980 ; →  Rhetorics: New Rhetorics ; Rhetorical Studies ; Organization-Public Relationships said that rhetoric was at the front of an organization's relationship to its surroundings. Since then he has argued that it is "the good organization communicating well" ( Heath 2001 , 39; →  Public Relations Ethics ) Heath believes that PR practitioners and public are engaged in discussion and that rhetoric could be compared to Grunig's symmetry model(Heath 2002 p49).

Audiences can assess the credibility of all speakers by considering the values on which the message is built. Public relation practitioners' role in the past has been seen as one that is there to persuade the public and change their attitudes. This has been common in PR and has been categorised as Grunig's asymmetrical model. Grunig argued that his model be best described as ' a way of getting what an organisation wants without changing its behaviour or without compromising leads to actions which are unethically, socially irresponsible and ineffective' ( Grunig 1992 p39-( Public Relations Ch 18). Rhetorical Theory assumes multiple voices and if one view is acknowledged and preferred then others may not have the opportunity to put their opinion forward. Rhetoric can be seen as a way of asking individuals to think about different points of views (Bryant 1953) (from CH 13 Public Relations theory to practice) Rhetoric is not needed if there is agreement but as Heath (1992) points out 'communication is a 'wrangle' of voices and not in isolation'. It helps informs the public how to communicate and engage with each other but ultimately for organisations to be ethical. L'Etang ( 1996) and Cheney and Dionisopoulos(1989)( Exploring Public Relations)

http://www.prismjournal.org/fileadmin/Praxis/Files/Journal_Files/issue1/refereed_articles_paper3.pdf Heath 2002 pg 49

http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9781405131995_yr2010_chunk_g978140513199523_ss94-1

Postmodernists believe that because of their exsisting power, businesses and government will always enjoy a more profitable outcome than their publics when the two are in dialogue. Postemodernists recognise that the pr industry is changing due to audience segmentation, uncontrolled media due to the digital age, globalisation and a diverse audience.

3.6 Sphere of influence

The sphere of influence was first put forward by Habermas ( 1989) He promoted the idea that a 'just society' was at the centre of his theory and that discussion should be free and equal and defined it as the ' social space that mediates between the political sphere and the private sphere by providing space for discussion and negotitation '.

( Weaver, Motion and Roper.- in Public Relations - Critical Debates and Contemporary Practice 2006)

However it seems that this approach could be seen to be too idealistic. It is more likely that communication is part of a strategic plan to control what the public listens to and the way in which it is disseminated. Jensen (2001) (Jensen I Public Relations and emerging functions of the public sphere. An analytical framework . Journal of Communication Management 6 :133-147). Moloney (2006) maintains that we do not live in a public sphere but a persuasive sphere and that Habermas utopia ideal does not exist. Again it appears that some scholars see his theory of public interest to be very similar to Grunig and Hunt's (1984) model of two way symmetrical public relations.

1.2 Conclusion

Although Grunig's fourth model is possibly the most well-known and the one that PR practitioners use in their day to day work, there appears to be a gap in communication models in regards to Public Engagement as a result of the digital age. It is now evident that a new model of Public Relations is needed.

Public Engagement

Public Engagement is a modern paradigm in the Public Relations context and sets out how professionals should be listening and engaging with their stakeholders in this digital age. Marshall Manson, Director of digital strategy at Edelman UK, describes Public Engagement as "advancing shared interest moving from an influence pyramid to a world of cross-influence" (Manson 2009, pg5).

According to Edelman there are four attributes of Public Engagement; it aims to be democratic and decentralized, inform the conversation, call for engagement with stakeholders and finally make it clear how reputation is important. Public Engagement has to work in all four areas (Richard Edelman, 2008). Trust building both internally and externally, reputation management and transparency are the hallmarks of successful Public Relations initiatives.

The term Participatory Democracy, a the precursor of Public Engagement was used by John Stuart MillsMills . Mills supported a representative government which included public participation of some kind but on a limited scale. It was apparent that participation could endanger political decision making and therefore democracy (Pateman 1970). Engagement in politics had been regarded as reactive but it is now perceived as proactive. Dialogue and engagement with all parties is important to prevent loss of public trust (Edward Andersson, Simon Burall & Emily Fennell, Involve 2010). The 'Big Society' introduced by David Cameron 19 July 2010 sought public dialogue and involvement in decision making. It is true that business and government rely on Public Relations to establish trust and dialogue and that Public Engagement, like any conversation, is all about listening. The world can be compared to a conversation and in order to be successful we need to listen (Richard Edelman 2008). The onset of the digital world has provided the public with means to engage in these conversations as never before.

http://www.essex.ac.uk/ecpr/events/jointsessions/paperarchive/edinburgh/ws22/zittel.pdf

Arthur W Page Society's White paper(2007)is a good example of how Public Relations practitioners and company leaders must alter their approaches and business goals to be more trustworthy in today's world. The study looked at how CEO's saw their roles change with the culture of the environment. The environment is changing because of the advent of 'all things digital', a worldwide economy and a new class of stakeholders. However, it failed to provide a clear way to develop the role of the communication department in the future. The paper went on to say that some communication departments need to change their working practises. In order to move forward they must familiarise themselves with new technologies, publics and engagement models.

Ivy Lee developed the first press release in 1906 after a train crash occurred in Atlantic city. He used a press release to invite journalists and photographers to the crash, as a way of promoting open dialogue with the media. He believed that Public relations was two way communication, and that PR's were responsible for making organisations listen to their publics and in return to communicate messages to them and engage with them. (Solis & Breakenridge 2009).

Prior to current publications on Public Engagement, the term was mainly linked to the scientific world. Demos (2009) stated that the UK was now perceived as a forerunner in Public Engagement within the science world. It argued that Public Engagement would only work when interest groups were included. Matthew C. Nisbet & Dietram A. Scheufele (2007) argued that communication must be accessible to all sections of society.

Advocacy, a term used by Public Relations Company Weber Shandwick, has been used as an alternative to PE and is defined as "Public relations caught the first wave, the adoption of new technology to spread information...  But that first wave, sharing information with more segmented audiences, is cresting.  A new one, a fundamental transformation of communication from information to advocacy, is rising" (Jack Leslie, Chairman, Weber Shandwick Worldwide, n.d). It argues that engagement is necessary if communication with audiences is to take place.

It is now evident that universities are becoming involved with the term Public Engagement. The National Co-ordinating Centre for Public Engagement (NCCPE) is part of the Beacon for Public Engagement project. Their aim is to support and encourage universities engage with the public and their stakeholders.

According to response source (2010) the ten most engaging brands in the UK are Google, Cadbury, amazon, BBC, facebook, M&S, sony , Microsoft, the Olympics and Dove.

Case studies-

Olympics 2012

London 2012 logo was designed to attract and engage with the young. The aim of the project is to build community engagement and to bring people together through a national event; this would in turn go hand in hand with David Cameron's 'Big Society'. Campaigns have already begun, such as the Inspire programme, which has led to projects which have engaged the community. 1,000 projects have now been giving the 2012 Inspire brand to go ahead and is estimated to have reached over 10 million people in the UK with more to be expected (DCMS 2010).

The Olympics will coincide with the 'big society' by creating up to 70,000 game makers, who will volunteer around the game sites and will help out in their communities but during the games and after. The Olympics other aim is to change the perception of the disabled. TV broadcasting will be issued throughout the Paralympics games. Other areas of engaging with the community consists of:

The new Sports Leaders programme - this will train 40,000 sports leaders across the UK, they will have to volunteer 10 hours of their time to teach in the community.

Engaging with the next generation of performers - A London 2012 festival will be held with over 1,000 events to be released in the summer of 2011

'Inspired by' - a project which helps disadvantaged young people around Britain http://www.culture.gov.uk/images/publications/201210_Legacy_Publication.pdf

Facebook

In the run up to the 2010 UK election, facebook reminded their UK audience to register and vote and held online live debates between the candidates. They used a live tool on Facebooks democracy tool UK page, where the audience could say whether they liked or disliked what the politicians were saying. Facebook's intention was for their audience to engage with the tool. Facebook's Director of European Public Policy, Richard Allan said:

"2010 is the UK's first ever social media election, and the dial test shows how voters can get involved on a scale never seen before. The dial test will provide a true barometer of the public mood and will define how the impact of the debates is interpreted."

The tool gave facebook vital statistics on finding more information about their audience. (Wired article) More recently Face book was blamed by the Egyptian government for rallying Egyptians to meet and demonstrate against the President. The web proved so powerful a tool to engage the public that the internet was closed down by the government( The Telegraph 28th Jan 2011)

The Police

Gordon Scobbie a senior police officer wants to see police using social networks to engage with the public. He says "that forces in Scotland should adopt "virtual community policing", with officers going online and directly engaging with the public about local issues" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-tayside-central-11828502 )

BBC

The BBC Trust set up Audience Councils in The British Isles to engage directly with their audiences and get their viewpoint on the programmes and services that the BBC offers. They represent all sections of society and as recently as the end of January 2011 invited viewers to join their organisation through the web and BBC TV Channels. They also hosted events for the youth and made home visits to gain an insight to the needs of the public. A Public consultation was carried out by the BBC Trust in 2010. They held three working lunches and invited organisations who had theory and practise in Public Engagement. They found that although the BBC website was very good at engaging with their audience, there is still a large population who do not have access to the internet. Face to face communication was seen as crucial to meet those with limited access to the internet.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbctrust/assets/files/pdf/consult/audience_engagement/interest_groups.pdf

http://www.mediawatchuk.org.uk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=309&Itemid=92

http://www.bbc.co.uk/england/ace/what/

Social Media in Public Relations

Social media, a new paradigm for PR can be defined as ''being centred around the concept of a read-write Web, where the online audience moves beyond passive viewing of Web content to actually contributing to the content'' (Sweetser and Lariscy p. 179).

From a communication viewpoint, social media creates an available access point for messages to be communicated to the public. Social media messages can be strategic and have many communication aims for organisations e.g. marketing and customer service (Avery, Lariscyb, Sweetser, 2010)

Social media has developed over the past years and now consists of forums, message boards, pod casts, photo sharing, search engine marketing, video sharing, Wikis, social networks, professional networks and micro blogging.( Wright and Hinson 2002). Web 2.0 engages with consumers, new and old through these social media platforms and it has let organisations put the 'Public' back into PR'(Solis &Breakenridge 2009)

Old style PR skills are still helpful in bringing about transparency when communicating with stakeholders (Schlesinger 2010) but the introduction of Web 2.0 technologies has changed the world of communications for Public Relations bringing individual relevancy to communication efforts and at the same time fulfilling marketing criteria and legal obligations. (Pavlik 2008, Philips & Young 2009)

Rubel (2008) also agrees that there is still a role in public relations for traditional media pitching in certain establishments. Web 2.0 had a great effect on public relations. Whereas before, the web was a place to find information, it is now a place for symmetrical communication (Phillips and Young 2009). According to Phillips and Young Web 2.0 is an 'evolution'.

It was observed that digital media "has the potential to make the profession more global, strategic, two-way, interactive and socially responsible" Grunig, J.E (2009, pg1). However, he adds that the new media is being used 'ineffectively' by some practitioners. Some are using it, as they did with the old media, as a place to write messages rather than using it to interact with the public strategically. Grunig (2009) concludes that it can only be used effectively if social media is used to its full capacity.

1.1 Social media and stakeholder engagement

From the eCircle 2010 the European marketing social media and Email marketing study of 1,045

Consumer in the UK, some interesting results showed:

Fans and Followers are the new email subscribers. To successfully engage in digital dialogue, marketing experts must convert consumers into subscribers as fans and followers.

Users of social networks want to be engaged by companies: 13% of fans and followers of company / brand profiles want to be called upon to do something. These should be used better by brands.

When information is shared, it can have a wide reach: 43% of users of social networks have more than 100 friends of followers. On average, each shared message reaches 77 people. But companies only achieve this multiplier effect if the brand or product becomes part of the user's "private" communication.

Public Engagement has produced 'new networks of influences' and online forums leading to a way of communication through Blog, Twitter and Facebook among many, which impacts on all walks of life (Edelman, 2009.) In 2009, 625 million people worldwide had access to the internet, and as a result many people are now choosing to share their content on popular social network sites, such as Facbook and My Space, rather than choosing a service which allows only one means of purpose such as Blogger (McCann 2009).

In one of the most recent surveys across numerous industries, 78% of organizations reported using blogs, 63% online video, 56% social networks, and 49% podcasts (Gillin, 2008). A further research by PR company Burson-marsteller 2010 confirmed that major international companies were using all four media platforms - twitter, facebook, youtube and corporate blogs to engage with the public .

Wight and Hinson carried two research projects that were five years apart, into the impact of new technologies on PR. It concluded that although more people used these technologies between

2009-2010 there were fewer new media opportunities available, for example this was borne out in the fact that facebook had been the most used social network site and that twitter was the most popular micro blogging site. It was obvious from their results that technology was continuing to change public relations.

In 2008 it was reported that 61% of those who answered their survey believed that blogs and social media had changed the way their companies had communicated. By 2010 this figure had increased to 75% and many believe that social media worked alongside traditional media. Many of the open ended questions from the study showed that technology was having a huge impact and moving PR into a two way communication by opening channels between companies and publics.

It is evident that Public Relations practitioners are using social media tools, especially blogging, in recent years within the workplace. It was seen as a way of competing against others in the PR world (Porter, Sweetser Trammel, Chung, & Kim, 2007). According to Rowse (2007) practitioners are actively using blogs. Engaging and starting a conversation with stakeholders through social media a very powerful tool(PR Week 4th Feb pg 20) It offers practitioners and journalist a means to have two way communication and great opportunities.

According to McCann's Wave 4 report (2009), social media platforms are so common these days that it is the place where the public share and create. In his study he noted how they presented unique opportunities to listen and observe. One way messaging is now outdated and anyone understanding this new communication world will only succeed (Weber Shandwick n.d).

There is a need to understand and integrate social media platforms to PR initiatives (Flanagan 2010) and organisations have to think carefully on how they are going to engage various stakeholders on problems and in the planning process in the changing technological environment (Goodman 2010).

But not everyone has access to the internet. The elderly find it hard to learn new skills and the poorest of our society may not have access to a computer or the internet. As a result their ability to engage with each other or society can be limited and certain groups of society may be excluded

(Warschauer 2003).

It seems that Pr's need todo more that just have use of the web. They need to be aware of conversations happening online, and they know that they should engage in a fully transparent dialogue with openness and honesty. This will help to develop relationships with their customers.

One section of society that has been affected by the introduction of the digital world is PR's relationship with journalists. (Sweetser, Porter, Chung, & Kim, 2008) Instead of the old means of PR's contacting journalists for pitching news stories, the roles are changing slightly. Media catching is increasing in popularity. Journalists are now contacting a number of PRs at one time and others looking for stories and information.

One third of Americans constantly use blogs as a means of gaining information (Smith 2008).

At this point it is necessary to understand that social media is vital within organizations, encouraging employee engagement. Enterprise 2.0 is a form of web 2.0 which is used for businesses only. They provide services such as Yammer, a corporate version of Twitter, and Chatter- a social-networking service (Economist 2010). According to Mashable (2010) the top five engaged brands in social media are Starbucks, Coca- Cola, Oreo, Skittles and Redbull. Starbucks has developed a digital platform solely so that the public can feel that they are part of the organisation by setting up 'My Starbucks Idea'. Here customers communicate and Starbucks listens to customers' suggestions. Companies are benefitting from listening and improving their services for all stakeholders including customers.

Richard Sambrook, the former head of BBC news believes that every company should be a media company he says. "Big companies are going directly to the consumer to engage them now, rather than through display or spot ads and the traditional means of trying to reach consumers. You can't just be out there shouting at people about your brand, you've got to engage with them quite carefully" (Sambrook, 2010). PR is there to help organisations to be honest and engaged with the Public in this new age of media and should not spin stories to the press (The Independent, 2010).

However, it has been found that brands are failing to make the most of social media and emails in their communication with stakeholders, according to a recent study by eCircle 2010 on the European marketing social media and Email marketing study. Out of 1000 consumers, it was found that 73% could be reached through social networks and 95% of those asked read their emails on a regular basis, but few brands were integrating both emails and social networks to promote their product (PR Week, 17th December 2010, pg 12)

A Stakeholder can be defined as anyone who is affected by the actions arising from any organisation, whether a public or private entity. When engaged, stakeholders can provide organisations with valuable feedback on society expectations leading to the generation of creative solutions and earning the organisation valuable stakeholder support (Lawrence & Weber 2008). With the advent of technologically enabled tools there has been a democratisation and socialisation of the media leading to a greater involvement by all participants. Breaking news is today likely to be captured first on Twitter, or the like, rather than a news agency (Wright&Hinson 2009). This in turn has necessitated greater transparency and in turn boosted the role of PR professional teams in the management of organisations day to day operations. The status of employees and customers has now been placed on an equal footing with shareholders and other governing participants (Authentic Enterprise 2007). Through PE, Corporate Communications will play a vital part in this new environment in this new environment and the Public Relation practitioner can help inspire corporate culture and stakeholder confidence (Miller 2010).

In this shift from older, singular, broadcast models to multi-lateral, multi-stakeholder engagement ones, the key word is participation. The new stakeholder model of communication is live and real, and demands to be activated. (Edelman, Robert Phillips , CEO 2010)

Today many organisations do not use on line communication to its maximum potential. Critics have found that many organisations fail to engage or involve users or take advantage of their comments ( Callison 2003). This could be as a result of under investment in the industry, lack of awareness or technical know-how.

Trust and Transparency

"Transparency is the degree to which an organisation shares information; its stakeholders need to make informed decision" (Holtz 2009, pg 2). Gillian (2007) agrees with Holtz that, organisations need to be transparent otherwise a crisis could develop through social media.

Trust building both internally and externally, reputation management and transparency are the hallmarks of successful PR initiatives. 'Trust is no longer a commodity that is acquired but rather a benefit that is bestowed, earned through action, reinforced by transparency and engagement"

(Richard Edelman 2011, Trust Barometer).

Today transparency is vital if an organisations wishes to do well. It encourages trust on behalf of employees and the public is in demand more than ever (Smith. M, Hunter. R, McGee. K, Gartner 2010). Surveys have agreed with the need for transparency in business and managing trust (Grunig, J.E 2009). To be successful in Public Engagement , companies need to be 'informed, transparent, prospective and adaptive' to their key stakeholders (Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, 2008 pg 65).

At a local level, internal communication has become more significant in shaping the management and image of organisations (Authentic Enterprise 2007). Trust is a valuable commodity which needs to be fostered; in times of crisis the trust relationship will play a significant role in shaping the outcome of unfavourable events. Encouraging a 'listening culture' within management will enhance the perception of trust (Mazzei and Ravazzani 2010). This is a function that PR needs to develop to accommodate changing communication platforms and models.

Transparency lead to trust and organisations are gradually adapting to the needs of the stakeholder for example Ninety percent of organisations websites, according to Fortune 500, are now customised to serve a variety of publics which include "customers, potential customers, investors, potential employees, and, to a much lesser extent, media" (Esrock & Leichty, 1999).

Before Web 2.0 stakeholders could investigate a company but were unable to comment on it. Today the internet is an extremely powerful medium and individuals can easily set up their own websites and comment on organisations whether it is good or bad. (Weinberg 2009) As a result Reputation Management has become more of an issue. "Now that web technology is cheaper and content is produced more easily, the web has become a means of giving consumers a voice "(Weinberg 2009).

Sharing of social networking sites has created huge paradigms for Public Relations. Organisations are faced with many challenges and need to be quick, transparent and clear in their answers. (Pavlik 2008).

Putting the public at the centre of all PR activities is crucial (Ledingham and Bruning 2000). Cutlip et al (2000) believe that PR practitioners should operate in an open system, whereby the external environment should be looked at in order for business to change and for new ways of communication to occur for their publics. Ledingham (2003) stated: "Effectively managing organisational - public relationships around common interests and shared goals, over time, results in mutual understanding and benefit for interacting organisations and publics". Communication is crucial to relationship management, Ledingham et al. (1999) from research found that in order for a relationship to occur with organisations and its publics, they must be transparent which will in turn lead to trust and commitment.

A customisable valuation algorithm has been created to identify the new stakeholders influencing the company products through social media platforms. The index of influencers can help PR practitioners in strategising a complete social media approach on maximising brand value (Booth 2010). Carneiro et al. (2010) have referenced Petrobras' study of publics wherein an analysis of theories on stakeholders and publics has been made to identify the problems that might come in future communication planning (Dad to look)

1.2 Reputation management

Social media can aid reputation management . It is apparent from reading literature on reputation management that this is becoming far more difficult with the explosion of social media and could end up costing a company a great deal of money if not handled correctly (Paine 2010)

With the onset of social media a company's reputation is no longer solely in the hands of a public relations team. Because everyone has access to an internet they are now part of it.

"It takes effort, it takes planning, it takes vision, it takes commitment, it takes energy, it takes resources and professionalism to build a good reputation" ( Haywood 2002). Reputation in the new PR is about listening, without out it, a brand of organisation can be easily damaged

Reputation comes from trust. All employees in the organisation should be listening to 'public comments and feeding them back, as well as putting out positive messages about the company' (Haywood 2002) . This statement is even truer for today's PR.