The Pre Marketing Era

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

Introduction

Marketing

Formally academic field of marketing begins 100 years ago and undergo through massive changes during that time. Through this long time a rich literature of marketing has been developed. So far marketing literature has focused on household, firms and consumers. However in period of last hundred years interesting insight came to see in literature of marketing. Past century experiences a period shift in literature of marketing. Wilkie and Moore (2003) outline 4 era’s of marketing thought.

Pre-Marketing Era (1900 – 1920) begin right at the turn of century which acknowledges that marketing phenomena considerably available before formal beginning of marketing. At the time of ancient Greeks greatest economist of 17th and 18th century including Marshall, Mill, Jevons, Ricardo and Smith propose concept of marketing in shape of value, human as economic entity, society as a economic entity, production, competitive markets. Role of government in controlling all these factors is debated extensively in that era (Dixon 2002; Shaw 1995). Marketing which is known in twentieth century is actually established within domain of economics. But economist had not been working in domain of marketing their focus was production that creates a value in economy. This view somehow is correct because all markets were localized. As 19th century begins immigration to urban cities, technology, product efficiency, improvement in transportation and state of market place dramatically seen which we can say evolution of distribution systems. At that time it was a genuine need to gain an economic edge.

Marketing take its own place in academic field when professor across various universities start new courses independently to view another aspect of market system such as "distributive and regulative industries" (University of Michigen) and ‘Marketing of Products" (University of Pennsylvania) etc. These realities substantively took attention in business of farm products. As the period move on especially other half of first era (1910 to 1920) books help to create conceptual understanding of field and start contributing to knowledge development (Bussiere 2000; Savitt 1990). More approaches come in later half such as functional approach (focus on purpose served), commodity approach (marketing action for a product) and institutional approach (describing operations of specialized like broker or wholesaler).

Marketing and society is broadly conceived in terms of aggregate marketing system which has huge power to server needs of society (Wilkie and Moore 1999). It has been seen that aggregate marketing system is different in each society due to culture, people, geographical conditions, sociopolitical decisions. There are three entities in system which includes consumer, marketers and government. During first era societal issue was a neglected part and focus was on distribution of sector. Different authors address frameworks differently as shaw (1912) said personal selling and advertising within domain of distribution. Weld (1915) keep marketing under production function and Butler (1914) concentrate on advertising. Lastly, Cherington (1920) elucidates marketing performance enhanced by marketing activities serve. It can be seen that authors of first ear was quite willing to measure marketing advertising, selling and performance as an economic function. Major focus was on business and government was not of much concern. First ear has raised some questions such as "Are there many middle man" "Does distribution cost more than required" "Does advertising is a source of price increase or decrease" ‘Which elements are desirable by consumers at cost he paid" "What about nonessentional services such as credit availability"

Formalizing the Field (1920 – 1950) in start of second era marketing was a nascent field and badly formed. It flourishes at the end of second era as a important academic field. Some of the major factors are rapid development if field during this tenure and various societal changes observed through marketing implications. In that time United States goes through World War II and postwar of 1940s which makes it remarkable. A fundamental characteristic of marketing is that it is associated with our daily life (Wilkie and Moore 1999). Marketing system evolve and world system as well in that particular time. More sophisticated tools were required to create consumer demand and to fulfill this more sophisticated distribution networks. Technological development introduces a vast variety of new products. For example in 1925 consumption of home appliances increase by 53% as compared to 8% in 1908. Consumer choices start expanding with newly introduced products in retails and supermarkets (Crica 1930). It brings new challenges for consumers who were not intelligible enough to use these technological products (Mayer 1989). Marketers advertise using less product information and more emotional elements and inducing fear in it (Allen 1952; Cross 2000).

Great difficulties and vast opportunities at that time called for academic filed of marketing to be a formalized field. Significant developments seen in two areas. (1) formal infrastructure for creation of knowledge (2) integration of content which reflect "Principles of Marketing"

Infrastructure for academic field of marketing was available in shape of organization, conference, newsletter and journals. In 1925 Journal of Retailing launched at University of New York. It starts publication on quarterly basis. In 1924 "National Association of Teachers of Marketing and Advertising was formed. Then in 1930 "American Marketing Society" came into being. In 1934 society launched American Marketing Journal which replaced with National Marketing Review. In 1936 teaching and association merger into American Marketing Association (AMA) and all publication renamed with Journal of Marketing which is still publishing on broader domain of marketing (Bartels 1988; Kerin 1996). in first decade Journal of Marketing published 500 articles (Kerin 1996). Textbooks played an important role in building foundation for the academic field of marketing (Clark 1922; Converse 1924; Ivey 1922; Maynard, Weidler, and Beckman 1927; Phillips 1938). Breyer’s (1934, p.192) explains

"Marketing is not primarily a means for garnering profits for individuals. It is, in the larger, more vital sense, an economic instrument used to accomplish indispensable social ends.... A marketing system designed solely for its social effectiveness would move goods with a minimum of time and effort to deficit points. In doing so, it would also provide a fair compensation, and no more, for the efforts of those engaged in the activity. At the same time it would provide the incentive needed to stimulate constant improvements in its methods. These are the prime requisites of social effectiveness."

Topics related to marketing and society topics were quite visible in tenure of 1920 to 1950.

World War II gives a spark to study marketing and society in a relationship with each other. Government role to protect competitors and was frequently discussed in 1930. Because of great depression among consumers various articles published on consumer cooperatives and controversy about pricing and advertising (Cassady 1939; Drury 1937). Bade and Wernette (1937) elucidates expanding movement of consumers. Journal of retailing contributed several researches on the topic of marketing and society (Howard 1933). "The whole truth of retailing" and "The minimum wage in Retailing was significant researches of that time.

A paradigm shift in the Marketing Mainstream-Marketing, Management, and the Sciences (1950-1980) was the third era when boom arrive and much build on mass marketing booming growth in U.S. marketing system. Body of marketing thought expanded widely during the 30 years. Its significance can be observed in increased number of member of AMA from 4000 member in 1950 to 17,000 member in 1980. Annual decorates in business rose 130 percent. In second era two million business degree and almost half million MBA degrees awarded. Focus was on (1) basis for marketing thought development (2) view marketing through perspective of marketing manager to help them build an understanding of marketing program. The world market at time was dealing with mass market. Shift toward managerial perspective of marketing was much elaborated by text books that came to see in early portion of second era. Books that published in that era are Wroe Alderson’s (1957) "Marketing Behavior and Excutive action". John Howard’s (1957) "Marketing management: Analysis and Planning and "Basic marketing: A managerial approach""Managerial marketing: Perspective and view point (1958). Alderson’s work reflects comprehensive contribution to physical and social science. No other programs were available except Harvard mathematics training and professor who were untrained have to train themselves.

Management and behavioral emerge at that time. Marketing, management and behavioral science were a mutual support at that time. Although significant difference exist among management and behavioral sciences but it goes through route of marketing. Its gain importance when focuses on two external factors (1) Inducing statistics and mathematics at National level (2) Computer as a research tool. New tool of computer enabled researchers to test complex model of marketing.

The shift intensifies – A fragmentation of the mainstream (1980 – present) fourth era consist of marketing mainstream and treatment of society. It belief that basic focus of academic work is to enhance the effectiveness of managers and decision making. Field is quite different than it was in 1980s. Internet opened communication across international borders and interest in marketing globally explode. Many controversies have been seen that time of which one is either mainstream journal of marketing focuses on theory or practical application. Advancement in science brings a lot of changes in complex concept and methodologies into field of marketing. Various universities have career path for newly hired universities "Publish or Perish" which increase pressure for publication and increasing number of sophisticated researches has been seen. There were three forces that bear academic infrastructure (1) globalization of education in business (2) need for more research opportunities (3) Need for sophisticated perspective and language as a marketing thought.

Due to globalization business concept moved from centralized to market based systems. Era four maintained the momentum created by third era that emphasis on higher education in business especially at MBA level. Most dramatic impact in field of marketing has not come from MBA program but from sudden increase in international scholars who contribute various concepts and findings. Fourth era was the first era when increasing number of researcher attended doctoral program in the United States and contribute in body of marketing knowledge.

IV Era – Attention to marketing and society fourth era experienced evolution of marketing and society. Wilkie and Moore (1999) says that marketing system is not functional to solve firm problems. Many other researches emphasize on individual consumer research. Area of marketing and society actually start flourishing in second half of the fourth era. This has been able due to marketing thinkers who built such infrastructure to encourage thoughtful development and continual research with great energy. One of the vibrant areas is presence of an academic infrastructure that leads research to think on important developments, provide pathway to publications and facilitate researchers’ communication. It was fourth era marketing and society created a strong base. Kinnear (1982, p.2) begun to provide a "forum for dialogue on issues of marketing and public policy". Development of marketing and society research boost due to conference held in fourth era.

It is difficult to say that which topic characterize marketing and society research. The four propositions are (1) Right to Safety which says consumers have right to get protection against products and services offered (2) Right to be informed which says that consumer have right to be safe from fraudulent and misleading advertising (3) Right to choose which says consumer must have variety of products and right to choose among them (4) Right to be heard which says that consumers must have right to be heard and receive full empathy. This framework provides a baseline at which market and society can be examined (Wilkie 1994). Basic goal is to create a fair market for all (competitor, consumers and marketplace). Another framework develop by Sprott and Miyazaki (2002) that classify articles in four category (1) Protection of consumers (2) Protection of marketers, (3) Policy and its making (4) Societal issues. First three categories reflect consumer, market and government as key role playing and last category concerned with research issues broader issue. It has also been seen that all of these topic receive significance important in "Journal of public policy Marketing" in fourth era out of which protection of marketers was a small part and consumer was a large part even then more than hundred articles published on marketers and more than two hundred published on consumer.

A significant development is book edited by Paul Bloom and Gregory Gundlach (2001) "Handbook of marketing and society". This particular framework design to contribute in knowledge development which includes the following content "How knowledge about marketing improves public policy marketing", "Impact of corporate decision making on competition" "Impact of public policy decisions" "Social marketing initiative" and some topic that are under study. Gundlach and Wilkie (1990) gather the entire topics published between 1970 to 1990 on public policy marketing. They used iterative process to indentify topic that yet to be address out of which consumer protection is important to contribute in area of social marketing. Few of the topics that highlighted by Gundlach and Wilkie are consumerism, quality of life, socially conscious consumers, legal aspects, marketers behavior, consumer education, social marketing, social marketing, ethical marketing. Extant researches on this topic still exceed 1000 articles.

It always comes into mind of researcher "where are we going" and "Where we have to go". Concept of aggregate marketing system gets more conceptual clarity when it comes to society because its society within which marketing operates. Marketing can never be studied in isolation with society. Relationship between marketing and social marketing thought has changed over the time and taking another shapes. There are at least six (Public policy marketing, macro marketing consumer economics, social marketing, marketing ethics, international consumer policy) subgroup which deals with marketing and society issues. Among these six groups there are people who focus on social change and help managing efforts of social marketing and some are helping corporate marketers which called marketing ethics. The marketing and society area has been neglected within mainstream of research in marketing.

Journal of public policy and markering has its own conferences and published by American marketing association. It focuses more on legislation and political system. Macro marketing group has annual conference and published by Sage. Consumer Economics is a study of consumers’ economic perspective and advancement in consumer research. This group has annual conferences. Social Marketing area is basically concerned with researchers who are affiliated with non profit and government agencies. It does not have any journal but focus is more on practical implication. Annual conference conducted on topic of "Innovation in social marketing". Vast opportunities are available at institute of social marketing in Washington D.C. Marketing ethics actually drawn from various disciplines and it does not publish any journal. It’s more orient toward a community rather than formal group. International consumer policy different culture across various geographical locations is still a barrier. U.S group published two journal which are "Journal of consumer policy" and "Journal of economic Psychology"

Society and Marketing are intrinsic part of marketing thought. Wilkie and Moore (1999) says

"Our responsibility of academia is to place a field of study into proper perspective. We believe the Aggregate market system should come to occupy a central position in research in the marking field"

It has been evident that modern infrastructure of knowledge development is taken by academia. There are comprehensive arguments for both theory and method. Wilkie (1981) says "It is not necessarily true that knowledge has to accumulate in a single field but knowledge can disappear if not transmitted properly. Andreasen (1997) points out that some social problems have left behind because researches turn to new avenues emerging in field of marketing. It is quite evident that body of social marketing knowledge has been impressive thorough out eras.

Social Marketing

Core idea of marketing lies in exchange process. It could not occur until unless both parties exchange something and able to communicate and deliver. Typically, marketing deals with exchange of goods and services with other goods and services or money.

Social marketing root is found within domain of marketing in work of Kotler and Levy’s (1969) and Kotler and Zaltman’s (1971). It scope further broadened by Andeason (2001b). Several text books, reading books published on the topic of social marketing (Kotler and Roberto 1989; Manoff 1975). Chapters published within mainstream of texts (Kotler and Andreasen 1991). Reviews on social marketing (Fox and Kotler 1980; Malafarina and Loken 1993), Harvard teaching notes (Rangun and Karim 1991) and call for research papers took attention of researcher to get deeply involved in the studies of social marketing (Andreasen 1993). Various national and international behavior change programs are now essence of social marketing (Debus 1987; Ramah 1992; Smith 1989). Professionals in the field of social marketing can be seen in various organizations. Followed by the work Kotler-Zaltman (1971) social marketing demand continued to rise, scholar find more opportunities to work with nonprofit organization and government organizations to apply their marketing skills in process of social change. Although, this demand already partially filled with "Social Advertising" (Davison 1959; Hayman and Sheatsley 1947; Merton, Fiske, and Curtis 1946) and public relations (Bernays 1952). Nonprofit organization actually senses that marketing had a broader scope. First book in field of social marketing is published by Richard Manoff who was a social marketing practitioner. Manoff start his work from family planning and nutritional value of food. At that time respond from academician were not appreciating. After six years a book followed Manoff’s contribution The Marketing of Ideas and Social Issue (1989). In 1980’s and 1990’s social marketing get a place in marketing and social science literature, Journal of Marketing and Public Policy is one such example. First definition of social marketing was given by Kotler and Zaltman in 1971 (p. 5):

"Social marketing is the design, implementation and control of programs calculated to influence the acceptability of social ideas and involving considerations of product planning, pricing, communication, distribution, and marketing research.

But this definition was problematic in different ways; term social marketing itself is confusion. Rangun and Karim (1991) noted that this term confuse with societal marketing. Further, argued that social marketing involves (a) it’s about changing behavior belief and attitude of individual and organizations for a socially benefited and (b) campaigns are primary purpose. According to Rangun and Karim (1991) societal marketing is more concerned with regulatory issues and an effort to protect consumers from what Hirschman term "Dark side of marketplace". Societal marketing does not necessarily involve influencing target consumers; it is clearly isolated from social marketing. Social marketing term was confused whether its practice is limited to only public and nonprofit marketers or private sector also engaged in social marketing. Rangun and karim (1991) again argue that marketing of "Seat belt usage" or "responsible drinking" is not part of social part because second purpose is social change. Another problem with definition is that it influences "acceptability of social idea". Fine (1991, p. xiv) defines social marketing as:

"The application of marketing methods to the dissemination of ideas – social beneficial ideas like cancer research, energy conservation and carpooling."

Some scholars believe that social marketing is more than ideas especially Kotler and Roberto’s (1989) related social marketing with social change campaigns

"an organized effort conducted by one group (the change agent) which intends to persuade others (the target adopters) to accept modify or abandon certain ideas, attitude, practice and behaviors" (p. 6)

They elucidate that social marketing mere provide information about key issues but it change values and beliefs. Kotler and Roberto’s (1989) definition still leaves unanswered some other central questions about the domain of social marketing. (a) Can social marketing identify significant different between "health education" and "health promotion" though it shares many common features (Glanz, Lewis, and Rimer 1990), (b) if ban on pillion riding by government is a legitimate social marketing strategy? (c) are ideas and attitude are useful attempt to legitimate objectives as a social marketing program (d) Is domain of social marketing is limited to promoting products such as condoms, oral rehydration solutions, birth control pills or other services. According to Andersen (1994) definition of social market should (1) keep practicing social marketers focused on the results they suited to influence, (2) keep it isolated from its academic competitors (3) keep social marketing out where there is less likelihood of success. Andersen proposes following definition keep above points in view.

"Social marketing is adaptation of commercial marketing technologies to programs designed to influence the voluntary behavior of target audience to improve their personal welfare and that of the society of which they are a part"

Underlying reasons for social marketing are still to increase sales. To achieve their profit generation objective, private sector engaged in such activities and their intentions are to maximize sales. Social marketing should employ to influence behaviors. Various organizations are primarily practicing social marketing activities. Many social marketing contraceptive programs launched in Thailand, Pakistan and Columbia but that was commercial to enhance sales of contraceptive products (Andreasen 1988)

Social marketing practices adopted by a large number of U.S based agencies like department of agriculture, disease prevention department as well as state and local departments. World Bank continuously conducting distance learning session by employing social marketing concepts. UNAIDS have used social marketing as a tool to fight against AIDS. State level proposal that initiate social change use social marketing components to bring a change. Big advertising agencies like Ogilivy Mather, Burson Martseller and Fleishman Hillard now claim to specific social marketing capabilities. Field of social marketing gain significant importance in North America and United Kingdom. Innovative work has been seen in New Zealand and Australia (Donovan 1999; Donovan and Owen 1994; Stannard and Young 1998). Social marketing begin with marketing of products that involve in social change (condom, pills, contraceptive products etc). Social marketing is not just about promoting idea (as Kotler and Zatlman [1971] suggest), but it’s about bringing a desired behavior influencing behaviors. Products usually involve in process of change in behavior but social marketing concept can be apply to purely behavior challenges like keeping girls in schools in under developed countries

Social marketing always faces barriers to growth because of no clear understanding about the field. What approached can be used in bringing change. Growth is possible by increasing share of social marketing. Andreasen (2002) proposes different social marketing branding campaigns to advance in field by help of academics and American Marketing Association. Social marketing is going through its growth phase of its product life cycle.

Consumerism (History, background, movements)

Consumerism plays a vital role in decision making and behavior of consumer. Vance Packard, link consumerism with strategies that purse consumers to have more needs and wants by "voracious compulsive. Kotler (1972) defines consumerism as:

"Consumerism is a social movement seeking to augment the rights and power of buyers in relation to sellers"

According to kotler (1972) few reasons could flare up consumerism such as structural conduciveness, growth of generalized belief, structural strain, social control, precipitating factors and mobilization of actions. Where, structural conduciveness refers to basic development in society that ultimately create potent contradictions.

For more understanding of consumerism, is widening range of activities of government, business organization and independent organization that are designed to protect individuals from practice that infringe their rights as consumers. View of consumerism directly focuses on relationship between consumer and business firm.

Consumerism is a belief and system of values which promote consumption and develop an urge to acquire goods that become consumer’s source of identity. It provokes status seeking behavior and producing a key dominant for social relations (Belk 1998; Salter 1997; Stearns 2001). This unanswered micro level issue is still to investigate (Belk 1997; Hunt 1983; Oslon 1982)

Efforts have been made to explore marketplace ideologies that constraint consumer creativity (Firat and Venkatesh 1995), shape and constitute consumer desires (Belk Ger, and Askegaard 2003), construction of consumer identity (Belk 1988; Kozinets 2002) and emancipation (Murray and Ozanne 1991). Dominance of consumerism culture in contemporary societies is still to examine (Schor and Holt 2000).

Consumerism is responsible for establishing social stratification through vulnerable consumption pattern, commercialization of consumer culture that leads to depression and commodity fetishism (Adorno and Horkheimer 1944; Bourdieu 1984; Veblen 1925).

Consumption culture

Culture of high consumption has been penetrating across the globe and consumers across the world are trying to retain that over consumption behavior. Intensified globalize culture and economic liberalization has lead people to such consumerist culture. Large number of media reports and surveys depict that consumerism culture is so prevail in youth which is a behavioral deviation to traditional culture. Literature provides evidence that consumers are getting into conspicuous consumption of status products to maintain or improve their social status. The most disruptive factor related to such consumerism is that it makes people crave for things much beyond their adequate necessities (Belk, 1983 and 1984; and Richins and Scott 1992). Consumption of any commodity will lead to depletion of resources from a larger pool or account (Morewedge et al., 2009).

Nations current situation such as terrorist attack, natural disaster can dramatically increase salience of death related concerns (Pyszczynski, Solomon, and Greenberg 2003). After 9/11 attack media documented evidence of American nationals desire to "seize the day" and this overconsumption took the form of buying, expensive and luxury products as well as stocking up goods, overcoming sweets and bargain shopping (White and Leung 2002).

Self esteem and excessive consumption

Excessive consumption gives an escape from self awareness and it might take form of overeating or excessive shopping. Compulsive buyers hold lower esteem than other consumers and they spend as a means to enhance self esteem (Faber and O’Guinn 1992)

World car sales increased to 61.96 million units as compared to 49.55 million units in 2000-08. On the contrary side, World Bank reported 10% change in food prices month on month rise in July 2012 due to severe climate in United States and Eastern Europe. Excessive consumption behavior has lead consumers to suffer social disparities. Consumption pattern of world consumers have lead them to economic crisis and disability. Such a definition of conspicuous consumption tallies with Veblen’s theory (Veblen, 1899; and Bagwell and Douglas, 1996) that people will get into the display of their wealth or possessions to enhance their prestige in the society.

Consumers of the world should start nurturing a new culture of sustainability (State of the world 2012: Transforming cultures: From consumerism to Sustainability). Understanding the phenomena of anti consumption could develop sustainable consumption behavior among consumers of world.

Anti consumption behavior

Study intended that anti consumption behavior can be a resistance behavior towards consumerism. If people realize the benefits of adopting anti consumption behavior it can make consumers socially responsible and more ethical.

Understanding Anti consumption

Anti- consumption "literally means against consumption" (Lee et al., 2009) Anti consumption is conceptualized as a consumer based phenomena and one based on choice (Cherrier, 2008). Iyer and Muncy (2009) elucidate approaches to anti consumption and alternate consumption exit and the motivations for anti consumption vary among political, personal and environmental concerns. Common to each form of anti consumption, is the aim to resist the forces of mass marketing and mass produced meanings (Peneloza and Price, 1993). Consumer resistance research can be considered a subset of the broader concept of anti consumption (Galvagno, 2012). Detailed discussion on the conceptual relationship of consumer resistance, anti consumption and "non consumption" See Cherrier et al. (2010) Anti consumption has been described as against consumption and that research in this area should focus on ‘reasons against consumption’ (Lee et al., 2009a: 145). Zavestoski (2002: 121) described anti consumption as a ‘resistance to, distaste of, or even resentment or rejection of consumption more generally’. Some behaviors and manifestation in anti consumption is captured by research paradigm from boycotting (Herrmann, 2001; Hoffmann and Mulker, 2009), brand avoidance (Lee et al., 2009b), ethical consuming (Shaw and Newholm, 2002), voluntary simplification (Craig Lees and Hill, 2002; Huneke, 2005), ad buster (Rumbo, 2002), brand rejection (Sandikci and Ekici, 2009), consumer resistance (Fournier, 1998; Penaloza and Price, 2003), consumer rebellion (Dobscha, 1998) and retailing (Funches et al., 2009). Cherrier (2009: 189) argued that regardless of the manifestation of anti consumption behavior, it is important for researchers to consider ‘how and why individuals resist particular consumption practices, who those individuals are, and meaning they give to their participation. Craig-Lees (2006) suggested that although anti-consumption behavior often focuses on the reduction of all consumption activities, it is also possible to focus on reduction of the purchase of specific products and brands. Although a grand theory of Anti-consumption (Lee et al., 2009a) does not appear to yet exist, all forms seem to share on overall goal of consumption reduction related to specific brands, product categories or consumption activities.

Literature Support for rationale of Anti consumption

Literature of anti consumption and resistance confirms organized movement against unsustainable consumption practices by many developed economies. Research on consumer resistance (Penaloza and Price , 1993), consumer emancipation (Kozinets, 2002a), voluntary simplicity (Shaw and Newholm, 2002), culture jamming (Sandlin and Callahan, 2010) and boycotting (Kozinets and Handelman, 2004) shows motivation for practices of these phenomena. Study of consumer resistance and anti consumption has gained a lot of attention in literature of academia from last two decade. Confusion between consumer resistance and anti consumption still exists in literature but a profound degree of heterogeneity found between these concepts because of conceptual building blocks. Galvagno (2010) defines as "Anti consumption studies are multi disciplinary and are founded on voluntary simplicity, Social economics, and organizational Psychology approaches, whereas consumer resistance studies have a strong background in cultural studies" Galvagno analysis also allow to infer some conclusions on the difference between these two terms of consumer resistance and anti consumption. Anti consumption seems to be related to self identity and it is more an individual’s attitude. Its act is related to consumption. Its prefix "anti" shows opposition to something of same kind so anti consumption is actually consumption. Thus the consumption object becomes a means to act against consumption. There is possibility to anti-consume by consuming objects not by rejecting them, consuming in different ways or transforming them (Penaloza and Price, 1993; Gabriel and Lang, 1995). Though, anti consumption is alternate consumption and its practices can be seen as consumer’s co production activities, file sharing, illegal downloading and it can be interesting topics for future research (Galvagno 2010).

Consumers Willingness for socially responsible consumption:

Consumers are increasingly interested in ethical, socially conscious product options (Trudek and Cottee 2009). Doan (2001) elucidates ethical consumption as a purchase of a product that concerns a certain ethical issue and freely chosen by an individual. Some ethical consumption benefits people and other environment. Consumers translate their ethical concerns by buying products for their positive qualities (e.g., green products) or by boycotting products for their negative qualities (e.g., child labor).

Zavestoski (2002) look at a group of individuals holding anti-consumption attitudes, research by Shaw and Newholm (2002) explored a group of ethical consumers and asked whether they hold anti consumption attitudes; an approach that is adopted in this research. Shaw and Newholm (2002) also found that ethical consumers displayed voluntary form of restraint and reduction as a part of their ethical consumption practices.

Ekhardt et al. (supported by Ishehour and Sharp et al.) highlight how social, cultural and identity barriers make it very difficult for anti-consumption to be practiced generally and, therefore, to motivate the scale of changes required, changes in global public policy are necessary.

Albinsson et al. this is contrasted with green consumption where compromise is required. They also point to evidence that living a sustainable life does not always necessarily include the purchase and use of green products. Instead the anti consumption practices of rejection reuse and recycle provided the informants with the opportunities to show consistency between beliefs, values and behaviors.

Consumer resistance identities

According to Weber and Marx resistance occur in opposition to outside of the system and constraining system. And consumer resistance is a behavior and an act of opposition made by a force or a power. Usually it’s related to general motivations like environmental, political and economical or may be collective action. In order for consumer resistance to be succeeding consumer must have power similar to the agents that they are resisting. Anti consumption is more related to self identity and has no consequences for other while on the other hand consumer resistance is more from someone in power like social workers, activists etc. Moreover, anti consumption can cause resistance behaviors while consumer resistance can exist without anti consumption attitude. Cherrier (2009 p. 181) summarize the concept that although these concept are diverse in nature but meaning, actions and experience of consumer for grounded and explain as ‘a resistance that is both a consumer activity and an attitude".

Consumption provides comfort, satisfaction, physical needs and contributes to one’s self and then communicates it to others (Ewen, 1988). The increasing diversity in products and services offer consumer to choose their identity through purse buying (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995; Holt, 2004). Retail system and development of marketing together diffuse global consumer culture to facilitate self expression and creativity (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995).

Resistance to once domination is performed by individuals who foster autonomous creation. Resistance is not a process of gaining power over the dominant but rather an inner process of self-reflection and self-expression.

Food consumption

Taste of any food can be an objective assessment due to chemical properties that stimulate taste receptors in mouth, resulting in perceived taste. One then evaluate taste to develop a perception. It has been noticed that consumer report taste as a decisive factor in choice of food products (Clark 1998; Glanz et al. 1988). Taste is not the only factor in evaluation process but some innate preference for that flavor (Germov and Williams 1999). Perception about taste may also be developed on the basis of former experience (Eertmans, Baeyens, and Van den Berg 2001; Matlin 1983). Increase in food consumption is because of sensory experience that develops a positive attitude toward food (Letarte, Dube, and Torche 1997). Conversely, opposite effect can be seen by negative sensory experience. Preference for food consumption is not independent of culture (Fieldhouse 1995; Rozin 1999). Taste is not inner desire behind food consumption and this is evident in consumption of unpleasant taste items such as chili pepper, beer and coffee (Germov and Williams 1999; Matlin 1983). There are many items that consume in sociocultural context. When someone experience beer first time its taste bitter unpleasant. Consuming beers, alcohol at parties, restaurant and pubs is a social experience which enforces taste (Germov and Williams 1999). So in this way, preference for consumption of few products is socially driven not biologically.

Group Influences:

Individual’s group membership in shaping behavior has been widely accepted by social scientist. People frequently tend to behave in accordance to their respective "reference group" other than membership group (Merton and Rossi 1949). Marketers accept the tenet that individual behave in accordance to reference groups.

Consumers can be classified into three categories on the basis of brand connections: aspiration group, whom consumers are likely to be aspired, dissociative group, who consumers want to avoid, members group (Escalas and Bettman 2005). Reference groups have direct impact on attitude towards brand (Duhachek, Zhang, and Krishnan 2007; Sirgy 1982; Wooten and Reed 2004). When a consumer endorse a brand by using it during interaction with other group members, he or she signals a desired to other members to get themselves associate as well (Grubb and Hupp 1968; Lam et al. 2010). Consumers express different levels of association with their reference group on the basis of gender, ethnic background and social relations (Children and Rao 1992; Escalas and Bettman 2005; Martin, Wentzel, and Tomczak 2008; Wooten and Reed 2004). For example comparing US customer with Chinese customers for their attitudinal dispositions that depends on their familiar group; likewise Hispanic consumer’s perception about a particular brand may vary due to their ethnic identity in region (Webster and Faircloth 1994).

Former researches have focused on positive reference group that identify central role in determining attitude and behavior. Consumers are not only influenced by reference group but by their respective membership group (Bearden and Etzel 1982; Moschis, 1976). Study of Escalas and Bettman (2005) differentiate difference between in-groups and out groups. Study reveals that consumers have strong self-brand connections to brands which are consistent in groups and weaker connection with groups that are inconsistent without groups. Furthermore, Escalas and Bettman (2005) explain that consumers don’t have any self brand connection to group he/she does not belong. They further elucidate that dissociative reference group particularly mostly influence negative self brand connections and consumers evolution and choices.

People consumption behavior has become source of constructing their self identity (Belk 1988; Richins 1994). McCracken’s (1988) proposes that symbolic characteristic of reference group associate with brands

Social Influences / Comparison

Festinger (1954) proposes theory of social comparison as a force shaping human behavior which argue that individual has a need to compare himself with others on the basis of different attributes that a personality hold. Jones and Gerard (1967) propose that motivation for social comparison tent to influence individual to choose their reference group.

Social Desirability. Crowne and Marlowe (1964) explain social desirability as " need for social approval and acceptance and the belief that it can be attained by means of culturally acceptable and appropriate behavior". It is tendency at which individual present himself regardless of his true feelings and image.

Self expression

Brands and objects can be associated with personality traits that provide individual a chance for self expression. Much part of the consumer behavior research especially consumer psychology has focused on bran attributes and utility function of consumer (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975). Self expression can be important factor in determining consumer choice (Belk 1988; Richins 1994). In era of 1960s initially research conducted on self expression. This research revealed that consumers’ personality congruency versus incongruence. Initially self expression tested on the basis of invariant trait of human personality and therefore has similar behavior across contexts. In past two decades significant researches revealed that self is a malleable construct and people behave differently in various contexts (Markus and Kunda 1986; Schlenker 1981; Tetlock and Manstead 1985). Though, people are influenced by social roles and cues so empirical support for self expression remains elusive. Plausible researches reveal that self is combination of multiple aspects or dimensions (James 1890). These personality dimension varies how important it is for self and how they have acquired (Markus 1977). Some personality dimension are important to individual so he/she is more likely to express only desires personality dimension and other remains hidden in personality. Previous researches conducted on big a five personality trait which includes Agreeableness, Culture, Extrovert, Conscientiousness and Neuroticism (Digman 1990). Aaker (1999) determines brand personality trait as Sincerity, excitement, Sophistication, Ruggedness and Competence. Personality is variant entity with respect to situation which is controlled by situational factors and these factors actually shaped human behavior and attitude toward a particular element (Epstein 1979; Mischel 1968). Behavior is determined by individual’s personality which is motivated by nature of situation. In former view behavior studied as a consistent but latter it studied as inconsistent across situations. Personality traits are considered as temporary rather than consistent and permanent. Linville and Carlston (1994) advocates that self is a malleable construct which is influenced by personality and situational factors. Self can be defined as good self, bad self, possible self, not me self, ought self (Markus and Nurius 1986). Conceptualization of self has two important aspects. One is its dynamic nature. Any "self" can be activated at any social factors. Traits of self can be activated on performing a particular role (Love, empathy, social work). Suppose an individual is sociable and intelligent. Relative accessibility can determine which to be expressed though his attitude and behavior. When an individual is at work may be his intelligence would be a salient feature as compared to sociable. Trait of personality is accessible if it is activated right before event (Markus and Kunda 1986) and it can evoke by recall a memory and experience.

Consumers prefer brand that are highly associated with his personality (Kassarjian 1971; Sirgy 1982). Previous researches focuses on the self concept construct which is explained by accumulated set of beliefs and attitude (Rosenberg 1979). Self-concept covers all aspects of including schematic and non schematic. We can define schematics traits are a self which is more expressive and important that individual (Markus et al., 1991). Behavior can be more accurately predicted when personality trait taken into account (Kleine, Kleine, and Kernan 1993). Human behavior is a consistency seeking which is inborn to reduce uncertainty (Swann, Stein-Seroussi, and Giesler 1992). Thus, feedback that individual found inconsistent with his personality creates negative affect and less likely to recall again (Eisenstadt and Leippe 1994). Schematic trait often associated with positive effect whereas inability to express shows a negative effect in case of disappointment and other situations (Swann, De La Ronde, and Hixon 1994). These factors enhance one’s self esteem and give opportunity for self representation (Greenwald and Breckler 1985). Markus and Kunda (1986) suggest that personality traits which are schematic often construct individuals’ behavior. Linville and Carlston (1994) suggest that manipulation of self concept can be through physical aspects of situation or surroundings (people, environment). Social situations are actually cues for individual behavior to express his personality (Cantor, Mischel, and Schwarrtz 1982). Thus, impact on individuals’ behavior is due to social situation and mediated by social cues which are stored in person’s memory. When a personal counter a social situation, cues get activated in memory. Situational cues are more concerned with impression management (Tetlock and Manstead 1985). People usually rely on social cues to gain sense of approval, building relationship which ultimately enhances individual’s self esteem (Schlenker 1981). Extent at which expressive behavior is controlled by situational cues can be called self monitoring which moderate the relationship (Snyder 1987). High self monitoring individuals’ are more concerned with self-image as compared to low self monitoring individuals (Snyder and Debono 1985). Expression conveyed by high monitoring individuals’ is likely to display more situational shifts as compared to low monitoring individuals’ whose behavior remains consistent across various situations (Graeff 1996).

Consumer’s word of mouth research has investigated some interesting communications between consumers about a particular brand which is largely explored. However, while communication good or bad words about a particular brand consumers misrepresent brands in order to keep their self image alive. Consumer are not always like to tell true story about their buying experience of that particular product, might be possible that consumer have bought that product in a deal or borrow it from any ever else (DePaulo, Kashy, Kirkendol &Wyer, 1996; Kashy & Depaulo, 1996). DePaulo (1996) suggest a guideline for antecedent of misrepresentation. Lying is a conscious step that intent to mislead. Lying can also be used for impression management which is extreme form of lying and construct a false impression (DePaulo et al., p.981). Need to lying for the sake for impression management is driven by self esteem. DePaulo (1996) document individuals’ lying which is individuals’ not just lie to benefit self but some psychic rewards as well. Liar get benefits to look better than his actual personality and protect liar from looking bad (Turner, Edgely, & Olmstead, 1975). Brand related misrepresentation only occur when individuals’ want to create a positive image to enhance self image (Bearden & Etzel, 1982; Belk 1981; Solomon 1985). Buying products on high purchase is a sign of prestige and status (Leigh & Gabel, 1992). To get a product a discount price for a product is also associated with desirable image (Feick & Price, 1987; Schindler, 1998). Researches reveal that expense brands are more likely to use to convey self image and status. Expensive brands use to identifying themselves within inspirational group where actually individuals’ does not belong and inexpensive brands cannot be use to express status (Leigh &Gabel, 1992; Wright et al., 1992)

Self Concept

Self concept is totality of individual’s feelings and thoughts about himself (Rosenberg 1979). Self concept has been viewed differently in various disciplines. Behavioral theory view self concept as a bundle of responses. Cognitive theory views self as a system of processing information about self. Burns and Rosenberg (1979) construe self as multidimensional perspective. Self refer to how a personal perceive himself on the contrary side ideal self is how a persona want to perceive himself or one’s desire to perceive himself in a particular way. Social self is how a person wants to present himself. Self esteem and self satisfaction gained through self attitude which is a judgment of relationship between actual self and ideal self (Burns 1979; Rogers 1951). Self esteem can be defined as individual’s motivation to seek such experiences that enhance self esteem. Self consistency is tendency to behave a consistent manner. These motives conflicted under some circumstances (Jones 1973; Schlenker 1975; Shraugher and Lund 1975). Products that are associated with personality has to be consumed visible or conspicuously. Consumers can roughly differentiate between how they feel about product and how they viewed by others (Locander and Spivey 1978). There is ambiguity and confusion on conceptual understanding of self concept in literature of consumer behavior. Many researched treated self concept as single entity and refer it to as a one’s perception of him (Bellenger, Steinberg, and Stanton 1976; Birdwell 1968). In this scenario self concept is combination of actual self, basic self, real self or extant self. Sirgy (1982) define self image value as a degree of attachment with individual’s actual self concept and self image belief as strength of perception with self image. Schenk and Holman (1980) argue that individual’s situational self image should take into consideration which is perception of others about that individual in a specific situation. Self concept has been conceptualized as more than single component. Some researchers argue that self must be taken as a combination of two components which are actual self concept and ideal self concept. Ideal self conceptualized as state of ideal self, idealized image or desired image. Some investigators go beyond the concept of self as a combination of two components.

Purpose of study

Purpose of the study is to find out factors that induce unethical consumption pattern in society. It is to identify are people victim of social forces rather than fulfilling their actual desires. Is need identification an internal stimuli or it is controlled externally by social pressure (groups, peer, family, ect). Social and cultural construct are not taken into consideration before.

Moreover, this study will also be able to find out remedial measure to free the community/society from excessive consumption. This will help in determining and finalizing questionnaire to measure attitudinal predispositions towards the issue involved in the investigation.

Our purpose is to understand process of social transition that leads society to consumerism.

Research Question:

What are reasons that induce compulsive buying in urban areas?

What are the reasons / factors for food consumption/Eat out?

Are people victim of social pressure?

What are justifications behind unethical consumption?

Methodology:

Qualitative type of study conducted by mix method research. Study goes through different phases. First, a group discussion conducted among five young university students to diagnose social problems. They point out major issue in society. Then they asked "what they think about quality of life? Are they willing to improve their quality of life? Respondents list down different rising issues in this society. All of the issues compiled in a table and then asked respondent to prioritize issues.

Group Discussion

A group of five people involve in group discussion. They have to discuss about major social issues in our society. Ages of all participant ranges between 22 to 30. Followings are responses of respondents which evoke thought about social issues

Noman :

"Corruption is the biggest issue that arise too many social issues. Corruption at individual level and govt. level even corruption at individual levels"

"People behave prosaically instead of showing genuine altruism. People are not open"

"People have money are more respectable"

Kanza:

"Media activities do not look aligned with our religious and cultural values"

"Drugs in youth like shesha is so prevalent"

"We have forgotten Religious values and teachings"

"We are lacking in trust even whole society"

Farah:

"Injustice is a social issue that leads to inequality and it creates feeling of being conscious about social status. Moreover, it promotes bad ethical values"

"High social class gets maximum respect"

"Our community system is weak and people are not willing to work"

Tahira:

"Insensitivity: we have adopted insensitivity because every day we stuck with a disaster, murder, doron attacks. It makes people insensitive, so they are not willing to participate in any social activity"

"Baradri system is due to social classes. People prefer their own baradri. People have money are more respectable"

"We should embed community in our education system. So community would know the actual society instead of adopting university culture"

At the end respondent asked to prioritize their social issues as given under:

Table 1

Issue

Farah

Noman

Tarah

Abdull

Kanza

Corruption arises social issues

3

1

1

1

1

Media

8

7

8

5

3

Drugs

7

8

2

2

2

Religious values

1

5

5

4

6

Injustice

2

2

4

7

5

Insensitivity

4

3

3

6

7

Social Classes

6

6

7

3

8

Community

5

4

6

8

4

Respondents prioritize social issues at top and give reasons for social issues as a corruption. Further, they explained that corruption is at individual level that can be defined as socially undesirable behavior or socially irresponsible behavior that arise social issues. Interconnectivity between issues elucidates that people are socially oppressed. And it further explore by conduction in depth interview so a vivid image of social reality can be seen.

Interviews

Interview protocol develops on the basis of attitudinal predispositions of respondents of group discussion and it consists of thirteen questions. Ten in depth interviews were conducted with academicians, industry experts and consumers. Their ages were 25 to 45 with an average household income of Rs. 50,000. Interviewer’s scrutiny was through referral of academia, industry and friends. Every interview provides an opportunity to improve interview protocol. By this practice we came to know about penetration of consumerism in society and remedies to free community / Society.

Findings

The findings showed that people are knowingly or unknowingly consuming more their requirements in different areas like food and apparel. Further, said that food consumption is most neglected area which actually becomes national issue. Insensible consumption of food damages health of individual and cost of health facilities by government which ultimately creates inefficiency that makes people socially depress. Reasons behind insensible consumption are different across urban and rural dwellers. Individual resistant towards ideas, thoughts, images or any exposure is comparatively low or individual’s cognition level is not intelligible for evaluative decision making. There are certain forces that push consumers to buy particular products or to behave in that particular way. These forces include mainly social forces that arises individual’s urge to acquire goods that can satisfy social desire rather than personal desire. Individuals’ need potentially emerge through group interactions. Individuals resistant towards compulsive buying are driven by social forces.

In depth interviews help determining area to study which is eating outside food. It has been noticed the most neglected area. Individuals’ behavior is so vulnerable towards eating out side and ignoring basic need of food. Social desirability is greater influencer in eating outside food which depends on individuals’ social need which may vary with gender, religion, geographical location, income and family. Further, an open ended questionnaire developed for scale development.

Open ended Questionnaire

Fifty open ended questionnaire filled to develop cultural understanding behind consumption pattern of society to develop a scale. Each questionnaire takes 15 to 20 minutes to be filled. Retrospective method used to confirm identified factors by respondents (Henry and Silva 1994). Respondents further give meaning to their responses and confirm what he means.

Elements of social influences

Our study yielded seven major components which includes, social influences on compulsive buying, social influence on decision making, social influence due to group interaction, social influences on consuming outside food, awareness about health benefits of outside food, perceived core product benefits and individual resistant behavior towards social influences. Study propose that if individual resistant behavior has impact on social influences on compulsive buying, decision making and group influence. If individual’s resistant behavior is strong, he is less likely to eat outside food due to social influence. Individual’s orient more towards health benefits and core product benefits if level of social desirability is not as high.

Scale development

Pretest data collection. We generated items to measure social influences, influence on outside food, health benefits, core product benefits and individual decision making. Pretest them with undergraduate students (n=40). Item measured on five point likert scale from "strongly Disagree" to ‘Strongly Agree". Pretest study found biases among items due to social desirability and found high reliability value (0.85). Factor analysis performed and items erode which has loading scores less than 0.40. To minimize biases among items Bagozzi and Lee (2002) method used. Another sample of (n=40) questionnaire filled which reduces biased responses.

Table 2

Reliability

Construct

Cronbach’a Alpha

Social influences

0.702

Influence on food consumption

0.623

Health Benefits

0.645

Perceived core product benefits

0.560

Individual resistant identity

0.588

Data collected from youth of urban areas. Age ranges between 20 to 25 and income 20K to 30K. Family member found between 5 to 10 and awareness media is television in semi urban and social media in urban respondents.

Empirical Investigation

Theoretical framework

Model.png

Hypotheses

H1: Social influences has significant positive impact on Individual decision making

H2: Social influences has significant positive impact on food consumption due to social influences

H3: Social influences has significant positive impact on core product benefits

H4: Social influences has significant positive impact on awareness about health benefits

Methodology

Data collected using self administered questionnaire that consist of five constructs (Social influences, influences on food consumption, core product benefits, health benefits, individual decision making). Population of interest was consumers ages 20 to 30. Questionnaires get filled upon willingness of respondents. Data collected from undergraduate students in an urban areas of Rawalpindi and Islamabad. After collection of data skewness and kurtosis value found within normal range and there were no outliers found in data. Regression test apply to test significance of proposed hypotheses

Table 3

Reliability

Construct

Cronbach’a Alpha

Social influences

0.770

Influence on food consumption

0.752

Health Benefits

0.791

Perceived core product benefits

0.811

Individual resistant identity

0.920

Cronbach’s Alpha value found normal. Values of all variable values are above 0.70 which means all construct are reliable. They are consistent in nature and every time provides consistent results.

Results

First theoretical model tested for age less than or equal to 21.

H1 predicted that Social influences have significant positive impact on food consumption due to social influences. Its coefficient value is 0.377 which means changing one unit in independent variable will bring 0.168 changes in dependent variable.

H2 has significant positive impact but coefficient is negative which means that changing one unit in social influences will bring negative change of 0.234 in dependent variable. It further strengthens the argument that if social influences are increasing it will ultimately decrease individual decision making. Individuals consume to construct their self-concept and own personal identity (Belk 1988; Richins 1994).

H3 predicted that social influences does not have significant positive impact on health benefits because individuals are seeking self identity in consumption not health benefits

H4 predicted that social influences have significant positive impact on core product benefits. Which means social influences has impact on taste, convenient, value for money and food variety.

Table 4

Regression weights

Estimate

P

Hypotheses

IFC

<---

SI

.0377

.000

Accepted

ICD

<---

SI

-0.234

0.015

Accepted

HB

<---

SI

-0.010

0.934

Not Accepted

CPB

<---

SI

0.227

0.059

Accepted

Note: Significant level at 5%

Age more than 21. Results (Table 3) shows that social influences does not have significant positive impact when age increase from 22 which means