The Effectiveness Of The Administration

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

The chapter will start with defining communication, describing the two communication models and discussing the various types of communication; vertical, horizontal and visual communication, formal and informal communication, finally the chapter will discuss how communication can help in accumulating social capital.

4.2 What is Communication?

The world communication comes from the Latin word communis, which can be translated as common. Communication can be defined as the act of passing on information from one individual to another for the purpose of creating a shared understanding by action, touch or sound. Another definition of communication by Conrad and Poole (2005), as a process through which people, acting together, create, sustain and manage meaning through the use of verbal and non verbal signs and symbols with a particular context.

Communication, under any definition requires the same basic elements: sender of information, message, channel and a receiver. Communication may take many forms; written or spoken words, gestures or visual symbols. These different methods of transferring information make communication a dynamic and complex process.

The process, by which the sender transmits messages which are composed of symbols that the sender considers appropriate for passing the intended message, is usually called encoding and the process by which the receiver gives meaning to the symbols is usually called decoding (Fiske 1982).

Communication thus means, to do something together, to share something, like experiences, observations, reflections and thoughts. Communication is a human action, something that human beings do. Communications� aim is to spread information and mutual understanding.

4.3 Communication Models: The Classical and the Relevance Models

The first model to understand communication is the �Classical Communication Model� figure No. (4.1). The model describes the communication process in six steps: sender, message, channel, receiver, effect and feedback. This model takes its starting point in the sender and the message the sender wants to deliver. The channel is then used to reach the receiver and get the desired effect. The effect that the message has on the receiver is then monitored through some kind of feedback (Nitsch 2000). The classical model has a strong sender focus, and the emphasis is on the sender and on the message that the sender wants to deliver.

Source: Nitsch 2000, 205

For NGOs, the classical model emphasis on the vertical communication from director to subordinates and it is used to tell employees about decisions that have been made. The vertical communication is effective for giving orders as it allows decisions taken by director to be carried out by subordinate. The classical communication ensures that control from the center is strong and that actions are coordinated and consistent, besides it reduces conflicts and power struggle (Wales Business Studies 2009).

The classical model results in a failure to adapt to the target group�s needs and viewpoints. If the target group is going to accept, understand and use information, they have to be able to see the relevance of the information from their own perspective. This means that it is important for organizations� communicators to learn how to look at the information from the target group�s point view and try to see it through their eyes (Nitsch 2000).

Another model to understand communication is the �Relevance Communication Model�. The model describes communication as �an encounter, or an exchange between the sender and the target group that is actively seeking information for the common benefit� (Nitsch 2000, 206).

The relevance model looks upon communication as an exchange between sender and receiver where the senders must listen to and adjust the information to the receivers� point of view and situation. In this model, the sender attempts to acquire, understand, and calculate the perspectives of the target group as a perquisite to communicate new information or suggested behavioral changes. The sender attempts to understand not only the target group�s perceived needs, but also how the context or environment in which the act of communication takes place may affect one�s decisions.

The central aspect of the relevance communication model is the information exchange between sender and receiver. On the contrary of the linear classical communication model, with just one way from sender to receiver, the relevance model consists of cycles of information exchanges about a topic; there are no arrows that show a �to-and-from-situation�, the information is shared by sender and receiver. This model defines communication as a process in which participants create and share information with one another with the intended purpose to reach mutual understanding.

A model of communication is incomplete if only one participant's understanding of the message is in focus for analysis. Communication is a joint action; at least two persons have to be part of it. This implies that a relationship is necessary in order for communication to take place. To reach a mutual understanding, it is essential to get feedback on the transmitted information, where feedback on feedback creates cycles of information and several cycles may lead to a greater mutual understanding.

Communication may lead to convergence between persons; this is the tendency for people to form a common ground regarding a specific topic. The mutual understanding between people will never be complete, but that is also not necessary, if it is possible for the persons to come together on certain things that may be enough (Rogers and Kincaid 1981).

4.4 Types of Communications

Communication takes many forms such as written or spoken words, gestures or visual symbols and it may convey information in a variety of methods: speaking, emails, telephone, hand gestures, facial expression, etc. Generally, there are three types of communication: verbal communication, non verbal communication and visual communication (Building Societies Association 2013).

The verbal communication is the most common communication type where the information passes through verbal medium like text, letters, reports etc. In verbal communication the sender shares information in the form of words. In organizations, members communicate verbally with each other through dialogues, discussion, presentations, and memorandum.

The non-verbal communication is a speechless communication where information is communicated not through words but expressed through expressions such as facial expressions, gestures, hand, hair movements and body postures. The third type of communication is the visual communication, where the recipient receives information not from individuals but from signboards, displays, signs, banners and maps for example the sign of �No Parking Zone� communicates to the recipient that it is forbidden for vehicles to park in the area. In this type, vision plays an important role as the interpretation of the message depends upon the recipient and how he understands the message (Building Societies Association 2013).

4.5 Formal Communication vs. Informal Communication

Communication is good, when the information is sent in appropriate form, then received at the right place and in the right time and understood and acted upon. There are various communication methods such as newsletters, memorandums, phone, fax, email systems, intranet, notice board, team working and informal discussion. These methods can be subdivided into: 1) formal communication 2) informal communication (Wales Business Studies 2009).

Formal communication methods are most obvious in the authorized channels to transmit information in the organizations. Formal communication methods are channels of communication recognized and approved by both the sender and the receiver. Formal communication uses a set of format and has a record kept. In organizations, the formal communication channels are approved between superiors and subordinates, these channels include annual reports, regular personnel meetings, personnel appraisal interviews, memos, letters, emails, etc. The use of formal communication in organizations will ensure that rules, regulations and instructions are being understood and carried out (Gallagher et al. 1997).

Besides the formal methods of communication, all organizations have informal communication networks that are not controlled by management. By informal communication, information flows outside the authorized and formal channels in the organization known as the �grapevine� when personnel talk with their colleagues and discuss related issues together (Gallagher et al. 1997 and Thayer 1961).

The role of informal communication is crucial. Formal communication activities were often supplemented by the grapevine as personnel receive up to two third of their information through informal networking. It had been shown that effective communication needs both formal and informal channels as the formal communication will be influenced from the informal communication activities. The formal statement must be supported by informal explanations.

4.6 Communication Networks

Non-Governmental Organizations can form communication networks when using variety types of communication: verbal and non verbal communication, vertical and horizontal communication and formal and informal communication. The literature discusses four shapes of communication networks and it is the responsibility of the organization�s management to choose which communication network is the best to spread the needed information effectively. The four communication networks are: the chain network, the wheel network, the circle network and the Y network (Chilver 1985).

The chain network is the formal approach in communication and in passing the information. Through this network one person passes information on to other who then passes it on, information is passed straight up or down the line. In the chain network, there is a leader at the top of the network who can oversee communication downwards. The main disadvantage of this network is the isolation felt by those at the bottom (Chilver 1985).

Source: Chilver 1985, 21

Source: Chilver 1985, 21 Another communication network that concentrates on the leader is the wheel network. The leader could be a manager or a department head that occupies a central position. In the wheel network, there is no relation between the spokes and only the leader controls the lines of communication and ensures that messages are passed effectively. This network is a good problem solving network with lots of potential input for a central coordination (Building Societies Association 2013).

When organizations want to share information equally between all of its members, the circle network will be effective. The circle network communicates equally between all members of the network either departments or individuals. The only disadvantage is that members can only communicate

Source: Chilver 1985, 21

with the two others adjacent to them in the circle. This type of communication can occur between the middle management levels from different departments but it can be slow and disorganized because of lack of coordination.

Finally, the centralized network in communication and spreading information is the Y network. The communication channels can be vertical and horizontal as information from one leader is shared at the same time through two channels who passes the information outwards. This structure can spread the information faster than the chain network (Chilver 1985).

Source: Chilver 1985, 21

4.7 Importance and Benefits of Communication within NGOs

Communication within Non-Governmental Organizations plays an important role in the organizational good performance. The availability of a strategic internal communication can provide a number of benefits to organizations such as keeping personnel motivated, increasing team building, reducing conflict and helping in meeting the organizations� goals.

Communications is a function of management. For that, communication between all administrative levels of the organization is essentially important. Directors as well as all personnel in the organization rely on effective communication in performing their duties, responsibilities and meeting objectives. For that, communication is considered the base for all managerial functions of planning, organizing, leading and controlling.

Communication is important for planning. Communications is a source of gathering information for the organizational top management during their decision making process, as it makes the access to essential information easier and it also helps identifying and accessing alternatives. Effective communication will provide essential information to directors to help them in making future plans and who in turn will communicate these plans to subordinates to implement them. Also, during the process of implementing these plans, communication helps to organize all the required tasks and duties so as to achieve their objectives

Communication also supports the controlling process. NGOs have various levels of job hierarchy with principles and guidelines that personnel must follow. Through communication, top management find it easier to control if personnel comply with the organizational policies, perform their job role efficiently and communicate any work problems and complaints.

Besides, communication is important to pass information such as the aims and the objectives of the organization in order to promote and motivate personnel. Communication makes it easier to inform and clarify personnel about the tasks to be done, the way to perform these tasks and how to improve their performance. In addition, communication plays an important role in altering individual�s attitudes, as well-informed employee will have a better attitude than less-informed employee.

The effective communication plays an important role in achieving organizational goals. Effective communication is important at all the levels of the organization. Every employee should be on the same platform and the clarity of ideas and messages is mandatory for smooth flow of work. For that, the top management must communicate effectively what the top management actually expects from their employees. The rules, regulations, important deadlines, must be made very clear to all to expect productivity from their side.

4.8 Communication Impact on Social Capital Growth within NGOs

Organizations while running its daily operational activities in meeting their goals and mission and through its communication channels and coordination of activities between various organizational levels can contribute in bonding social capital. There is inter-relation between communication and social capital, as communication can build social capital and the availability of social capital will lead to effective communication.

Building social capital for NGOs represents an asset that can produce a stream of benefits which affect organizations� growth and development. Social capital can provide NGOs with information sharing, mutual beneficial collective action and decision making. Social capital is economically beneficial because its interaction facilitates the transmission of knowledge about the behavior of others which reduces the problem of opportunism and facilitates the transmission of knowledge about technology and markets. Finally, social capital reduces the problem of free riding and so it facilitates the collective action (Ostrom 2000).

Communication can have an impact on building social capital by the influence that communication have over the sources that accumulate social capital. Grootaert et al. (2003) stated that in order to apply the concept of social capital at a practical and operational level, social capital can be broken down into six key dimensions and at the same time these dimensions are the benefits achieved from the existence of communication channels within Non-Governmental Organizations. These dimensions are the variables used in this research to measure the accumulation of social capital which are: Network Ties, Trust, Collective Action and Cooperation, Shared Information, Social Cohesion and Inclusion and Empowerment. These dimensions capture both the structural and cognitive forms of social capital.

4.8.1 Network Ties

Communication within NGOs can realize harmonized relationships and networks which would make it easier for personnel to trust each other, to share information, to take collective decisions and to meet objectives.

Within organizations, a network is a group of closed individuals; that is people one feels at ease with, can talk to about private matters, or call upon for help which will yield to mutual support and will give them strength in decision making, implementing decision and achieving goals (Grootaert et al. 2003). Putman argued that dense networks strengthen trust and shared norms, thus making organizations function effectively (Adler and Kwon 2009).

Network ties, created through communication, can transfer personal relationships into business exchange and the aggregation of the social capital of individuals into that of the organizations. Ties within organizations can provide a potential network of access to personnel and their resources, including information and knowledge and through its cognitive dimension may ensure motivation and capability for exchange (Nahapiet and Ghoshal 1998).

Social capital theory believed that network ties within organizations provide access to resources as they constitute a flow of information. Strong horizontal ties help in bonding social capital among personnel within NGOs. Coleman (1988) said that information is important in providing a base for action for organization but it is costly to gather. However, the network ties and social relations among personnel constitute information channels that reduce the amount of time and investment required to gather information.

NGOs can benefit from the network ties founded within the organization, as a department with a group of employees who have learned to work effectively together can perform tasks and duties at a lower cost both in time and effort (Ostrom 2000). Besides, network ties, created through communication, can empower departments to work for the mutual benefit of its employees and thus they can support each other in emergency situation (Grootaert et al. 2003).

4.8.2 Trust

Building trust and solidarity within NGOs is another benefit of maintaining effective communication channels.

Trust is the belief that the results of someone�s intended action will be appropriate from our point of view. Researchers find that where relationships are high in trust, people are more willing to engage in social exchange, people are more willing to cooperate and more social capital will be generated. According to Mishira (1996), trust is multidimensional and indicates a willingness to be vulnerable to another party. This willingness arises from confidence in four aspects: (1) belief in the good intent and concern of exchange partners (2) belief in their competences and capabilities (3) belief in their reliability (4) belief in their perceived openness.

Where trust exists and is effective, it constitutes a powerful form of social capital. Organizations are interested in building trust and keeping trust among employees. When organizations keep their actions open to all evidence by having a transparent operation, secure communication and dialogue, thereby trust may both open up access to employees for communication and exchange of information.

Trust can help NGOs cope with diversity and operation complexity. Trust may also indicate greater openness to others for easier communication and exchange of ideas. The interpersonal trust in organizations is very important, for example, when a rule or regulation is ambiguous or unclear, trust has to reside in the quality of the personal relationship that bind the personnel through shared values and expectations rather than the intrinsic of the rule or regulation. Trust networks can transmit more sensitive and richer information that other types of networks because of its solidarity benefit (Adler and Kwon 2009).

NGOs realize that the efforts they made in building trust and reciprocity of trust can produce higher levels of return in future time even though for the personnel creating trust and reciprocity is not fully conscious of the social capital they construct.

4.8.3 Collective Action and Cooperation

Collective action is an important aspect of NGOs success. Effective and strong communication within NGOs can promote collective actions and help in building team work. A closer team yields a more productive team and bonds their relationships and their ability to work well together, thus building social capital (Grootaert et al. 2003).

Communication and collective action could create social norms of openness and team work. Social norms would emphasis on cooperation rather than competition and on open disclosure of information and on building loyalty to the organization as significant element of success. Communication within organizations can encourage other norms of interaction that have shown to be important in the creation of social capital including a willingness to value and respond to diversity of its employees, an openness to criticism, and a tolerance of failure. Organizations could benefit from norms as they encourage group thinking that may merge in strong, convergent groups and that represent the way in accumulating high level of social capital (Nahapiet and Ghoshal 1998).

According to Coleman (1990), a norm exists when the socially defined right to control an action is held not by the actor but by others. Through communication and collective action, social norms are built and once they exist and are effective, they constitute a powerful form of social capital; such norms may be a significant influence on exchange processes, opening up access to exchange of information and ensuring the motivation to engage in such exchange.

Communication increases the willingness to cooperate and participate in collective action. For NGOs, it consists of the organized activities for providing related public services to the community. Organizations with high density of network and high level of trust also display higher level of collective action. Collective action is possible only if a significant amount of social capital is available (Grootaert et al. 2003).

4.8.4 Social Cohesion and Inclusion

Communication within NGOs can influence the frequency of every-day social interaction. This sociability inside NGOs can take the form of employees meeting during their work breaks or attending public meetings either at work, in public places or visits to each others� home. This sociability can create a harmony between employees which will help them to overcome the personal difference between them such as difference in income, social status, religion, etc. and this sociability will help in building social capital among them (Grootaert et al. 2003).

According to Ouchi (1980), communication and frequent interactions among groups permit faster dispute resolution and prevent the accumulation of complaints and criticism. Effective communication helps employees to resolve conflicts, build harmony and bridge communication gaps, and by that employees can bond relationships and accumulate social capital (Adler and Kwon 2009).

Social cohesion is crucial in the success of organizations. Portes (1998) argued that workers learn to identify with each other and support each other�s initiatives because they are thrown together in common working conditions and therefore form similar beliefs and shared experiences and these experiences contribute to bond social capital because they create a strong sense of community and solidarity.

Nahapiet and Ghoshal (1998) argued that beliefs, in the form of shared strategic visions, interpretations, and systems of meaning, play a critical role in the generation of social capital, and that such belief are theoretically and practically distinct from normative value orientations. Social capital is unlikely to be accumulated among people who do not understand each other as in the absence of shared meanings or goals, people would find it difficult to collaborate.

Social capital stems in part from the availability of a common belief system that allows participants to communicate their ideas and make sense of common experiences. Such communicative resources allow common world-views, assumptions and expectations to emerge among and facilitate their joint action (Adler and Kwon 2009).

4.8.5 Shared Information

Non-governmental organizations depend on information sharing for achieving their objectives. Better connected NGOs have better information access about the efficiency of running its activities and about new opportunities and thus they enjoy larger success and future sustainability of their activities as a result. Improving communication within NGOs can enhance brainstorming sessions which allow NGOs to pool information which could occur through reciprocal interaction such as NGOs network. In addition to acting as a pool of information exchange, networks facilitate collective action and decision making by increasing the benefits of compliance with expected behavior or by increasing the costs of noncompliance (Grootaert and Bastelaer 2001).

Communication within non-governmental organizations can transmit shared language, shared vocabulary, and collective narrative. The shared language and codes, strengthened through communication, can generate social capital. Language has a direct function in communication, as it is the mean by which employees discuss and exchange information.

Since employees from all NGOs hierarchy must have the same overlap in knowledge, communication help in sharing language and thus enhancing their capabilities and performances. The existence of shared vocabulary enables organizations to easily execute their daily operations and to develop new concepts based on information and knowledge gained through exchange of information and to conduct smooth daily organizational activities. To the extent that personnel share a common language, this will facilitate their abilities to gain access to other employees and information thus building their social capital. On the other hand, to the extent that their language and codes are different, this keeps personnel apart and restricts their access to other employees and information thus destroying their social capital (Nahapiet and Ghoshal 1998).

4.8.6 Empowerment

Empowerment refers to the expansion of assets and capabilities of people to participate in decision making that affect every day activities, negotiate with, influence, control and hold accountable organizations that affect their lives. Also, empowerment is defined as the ability to make decisions that affect every day activities and may change the course of one�s life (Grootaert et al. 2003).

Efficient communication empowers personnel to take decisions that have positive influence on their lives, to take decision that affect their daily work operation which will impact on making their organization a better place. Empowered employees will feel the courage to appeal the administration for something that is of benefit to all personnel.

4.9 Conclusion

Organizations cannot function without communication. Communications tie together all the organization�s departments and push personnel to action. Communication is only good, if the information is sent in the appropriate form, then received at the right place and the right time, and understood and acted upon.

Communication is important for organizations, as it transmits information and knowledge from all the administrative levels, from managers to employees and among employees so that cooperation action can occur. Also, communication serves to motivate and direct personnel to perform tasks and duties and it helps to mold personnel�s attitude and pass on shared beliefs, language and norms.

Through communication, NGOs can influence and strengthen the network ties between personnel, build trust and cooperation, share information, bond social cohesion and empower employees. Because of that, there can be no doubt that communication can reinforce the sources of building and accumulating social capital which is an important capital, besides the physical and human capitals, that facilitates the organizations� daily operations to achieve productive and economic activities.