What Is Lifecycle Design Lifecycle Analyse

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

A lifecycle analysis is used by companies to assess the environmental impacts associated with all the stages in the development of a product. The analysis is undertaken to evaluate potential environmental impacts caused by raw material extraction, raw material processing, manufacturing of the raw materials into products, distribution, use, maintenance and repair, and disposing or recycling. Therefore, LCA is used to seek and identify the environmental consequences of the production and use of a product, thus allowing companies to interpret the results to make informed decisions to improve the environmental impacts on a product by altering design interventions.

The most common approach for LCA is the Cradle-to-grave one. Cradle-to-grave is a full analysis from resource extraction (‘cradle’) to the use phase, then finally the disposal phase (‘grave’). This means that the lifecycle will be in a linear pattern where during the phases of production, activities occur that use the materials and energy to generates waste and emissions. A comparison to a Cradle-to-cradle approach shows us there is a cyclic pattern, where the ‘end-of-life’ disposal step for a product is a recycling process, which prevents the environmental impacts of products by employing sustainable production, operations, and disposal practices.

To implement an LCA successfully across different products, and specifically complex products and processes composed of several thousand materials an advanced process is requires. The analysis will require dedicated software and applications designed to accurately record the environmental impact of a specific process in the manufacturing stage. These tools provide an efficient and objective assessment of the environmental impacts of a company, by the use of third-party sources (specifically industrial engineers) that have expertise in specific manufacturing processing involved in the production of a product.

For the past three years, Apple has used a comprehensive lifecycle to determine where the greenhouse gas emissions come from. All this data is added together from 5 different stages: manufacturing, transportation, use, the recycling of products and as well as the emissions generated by the facilities at Apple. This helps Apple determine where most the carbon emissions come from in their products lifecycle.

(Apple’s environmental carbon footprint, 2012)

How does Apple undertake lifecycle analysis (LCA) for its products?

Apple undertakes an LCA for all of its products they manufacture, which consists of a five-step process.

Data Collection

The first step is the data collection, which starts with the measurement of power consumed by a product while it is running a simulated use scenario, which varies for different products. To do this, Apple has set simulations for its products, for example: Apple assumes that a Mac computer will have a four-year average use period, while portable handheld products such as the iPhone, iPod and iPad are assumed to have a three-year use period.

Part-by-part measurement of the entire product

The second step consists of a part-by-part measurement of the entire product being analysed. This is done to help Apple accurately measure the size and weight of the components and materials consisted in the product. A single product can contain over hundreds of parts, thus double-checking the individual parts in detail with the product’s bill of materials supports this step. Included in this measurement is the component yield loss during the production process and also the transportation of materials between the different manufacturing sites is accounted for. The production of external accessories to be used with the products is also included in the measurement for example: docks, chargers, mice and keyboards.

Assessment of emissions from transportation of goods

The third step assesses the emissions produced from the transportation of finished product to the sales regions. When products are shipped via land, sea and air, data is collected on the single units and multipack units of products that leave the manufacturing base. During the transportation, the majority of emissions released are associated with the shipments of products to sales distribution hubs in Europe, Asia and the Americas. Once products read the sale regions, the final transportation assessment is from the regional hub to individual customers who purchase the product. This is accounted for using an overall adjustment factor.

Collection and recycling at the end of the useful life of a product

The final step of the LCA is the collection and recycling of the product when it has reached the end of its useful life. Accounted for in this step is the process of getting the product from customers to recycling parts, along with the treatment steps carried out by the recycler. The recycling plants carry out procedures to obtain the metal, plastic and glass materials from products, this is accounted for in the calculation. The process of smelting metals is not included in the calculation as these are considered the stages of production, not the end-of-life process.

Processing of the product data model through a LCA tool

After data has been collected, the final step involves running the product data through the LCA tool acquired by Apple and to compile detailed results for greenhouse gas emissions as they relate to individual products. The collected data and life cycle model used in the tool are then checked for quality and accuracy by a third party research organisation, Fraunhofer Institute in Germany.

How has lifecycle analysis considerations and issues determined the focus for design interventions and innovation being applied in sustainable technology?

"Apple reports environmental impact comprehensively. We do this by focusing on our products: what happens when we design them, what happens when we make them, and what happens when you take them home and use them." – (Apple Inc., 2012)

To minimise the impact to the environment by the growth of Apple, Apple has chosen to design newer products that ship with smaller packaging, use fewer material, be free of toxic substances and be as energy efficient and recyclable as possible, while having top performance and maintaining a quality exterior design.

Below is a detailed summary of how Apple has determined the focus for design interventions from the five stages:

Manufacturing

Manufacturing incudes the extraction of raw materials, which are then assembled to form the products.

Material use – To minimalize the amount of raw materials used in the manufacturing process, Apple’s designers and engineers have developed thinner, smaller and lighter products, which consist of fewer materials. Apple products have become more powerful over the years even though they have less material to therefore produce fewer carbon emissions. An example of this method is the 21.5 inch iMac, it is more powerful and has a larger screen that the original 15-inch iMac, although it has been designed with 50 percent less material, while generating 50 percent fewer emissions. Also, iPad 2 has become 33 percent thinner and 15 percent lighter since the original iPad, producing 5 percent fewer carbon emissions due to the minimalized material use.

Toxic substance removal – Apple has worked with its manufacturers to eliminate toxic substances, for example: arsenic, mercury, brominated flame-retardants, phthalates and polyvinyl chloride. Apple has removed these substances from its entire product line, ensuring all products are free from toxic materials.

Transportation

Transportation involves the distribution of Apple’s products from the assembly locations to distribution hubs in the regions where the products are then sold to customers.

Smaller packaging – Apple has engineering experts who have developed product packaging that is slim and light yet protective and appealing to the eye. The efficiency used in packaging design not only reduced materials and waste, but also helps reduce emissions produced during the transportation phase. An example of this is with the packaging for the 2011 iPhone 4. The iPhone 4 packaging is 42 percent smaller than the original 2007 iPhone packaging, meaning that 80 percent more iPhone 4 boxes fir on each shipping pallet, consequently allowing more pallets to fit on each boat and plane. This results in fewer boats and planes being used for shipment and hence the fewer carbon emissions. This therefore is a novel use of existing processes to develop a better use of transportation to sales regions.

Product Use

Product use involves the use of the manufactured product by a customer once they have purchased from Apple.

Energy efficiency – Apple is unique in a way that it designs both its hardware and software (operating system) together compared to other electronic companies. This allows apple to make sure they work together to conserve power. An example of this is the Mac mini, as due to its small exterior, it uses as little as one-fifth the power consumed by a typical light bulb, claimed by Apple. This however does not include the use of an external monitor, keyboard and mouse. Other examples include the custom build processors used in iDevices, including the A4, A5 and A6 processers that have been engineered to perform complex jobs without sacrificing battery life. Along with the energy efficient design, Apple has maintained to keep all its products Energy Star qualified.

Recycling

Due to Apple using less material to produce products in the design stage, Apple is able to reclaim the materials at the end of a products useful life and reuse them in newer products. These materials include high-grade aluminium, arsenic-free glass, and strong polycarbonate.

Longer-lasting products – Apple has designed products with superior batteries that last longer than a typical electronic device. The built-in batteries in the MacBook Pro line-up is an example of this, as the battery can be charged up to 1000 times, in comparison to other notebook batteries that can only be charged up 200-300 times, thus more likely to fail overtime and need replacing. Also the battery is claimed to last up to five years, meaning the MacBook Pro line-up of notebooks uses just one battery in its useful life, whereas a typical notebook uses three. Consequently, this saves users money, as well as increasing the lifespan of the product.

Apple recycling programs – Once an Apple product has reached the end of its useful life, Apple will help recycle the product responsibly. This is done by the institution of recycling programs in cities and college campuses in 95 percent of the countries where Apple products are sold (not including New Zealand). All the e-waste collected by Apple is also controlled by Apple’s voluntary and regulatory programs and is processed in the region, which it is collected. It is claimed that none of these materials are shipped overseas for recycling or disposal, thus complying with health and safety laws.

Facilities

Apple’s facilities include distribution hubs, corporate offices, , data centres and retail stores.

Clean energy – Apple reduces the amount of energy use in their facilities in various ways. One of them is by making some of its facilities 100 percent with renewable energy, eliminating 30000 metric tons of carbon emissions. Apple also installs high-efficiency mechanical equipment, digital controls, and monitoring equipment in their facilities that all run on energy efficient Apple computers. An example of the use of clean energy is the Maiden, North Carolina data centre. This has used an energy-efficient green building design, by the use of private solar arrays and building the largest operating non-utility fuel cell installation.

Discussion between the lifecycle analysis (LCA), design innovation and the sustainability of the MacBook Pro with Retina display

Material Efficiency

The use of ultra-compact product and packaging designs for the Retina display MacBook Pro has lead to the reduction in the material footprint of the product as well as maximizing shipping efficiency. It also helps with the reduction of energy consumption during manufacturing processes and material waste generated at the end of the product’s life. Also waste is further reduced through the use of batteries that last up to three times longer than the typical notebook battery. The Retina display MacBook Pro is made completely of aluminium and other materials highly desired by recyclers. Also through the reduction of DVD drive in the notebook, further component waste is minimised.

This chart shows the analysis of materials used in the MacBook Pro with Retina Display:

Packaging

The packaging for the MacBook Pro with Retina display uses corrugated cardboard which is made from a minimum of 30 percent recycled content and moulded fibre, which is made entirely from recyclable materials. Also, the packaging is material efficient in a sense that it allows at least 84 percent more units that the 15 inch MacBook Pro to fit on a pallet on each shipping container.

Energy Efficiency

Due to Apple engineering both hardware and software within its products, it has ensured the MacBook Pro with Retina display is energy efficient right out of the box. An example of this is when the operating system intelligently uses power-efficient components to power them down during periods of inactivity. Also, the notebook consists of an ambient light sensor with intelligently adjusts the brightness of the display to the environment to which the user is using the notebook, thus giving the perfect brightness for any condition, while minimalizing the use of energy. Another example is the automatic graphics switching system. This allows the notebook to switch graphics processors to give users the performance only when it is needed, for example, when a graphics intensive application is running the notebook automatically switches to the more powerful processor, whereas when a less graphics intense program is running the notebook will switch to the better battery efficient processor. This is another way the MacBook Pro with Retina display saves power, while extending battery life behind the scenes, due to the hardware and software working together.

The Retina display MacBook Pro meets the requirements for the Energy Star program for Computer Version 5.2. It has been designed to consume 40 percent less energy than the original 15 inch MacBook Pro.

Recycling

The MacBook Pro with Retina display has an ultra-efficient design and Apple claims to have minimized material waste at the products end of life (although this is not 100 percent true) – more in next section. Apple offers and participates in various product take-back and recycling programs in 95 percent of the sales regions, while all products are processed in the country or region they are collected minimizing waste sent overseas.

Discussion between the competing priorities and compromises made as a result of lifecycle analysis (LCA) and sustainability of the MacBook Pro with Retina display

Aesthetics Vs. Recyclability

Apple is known for making thin, light and aesthetically please product for its customers. Although with the MacBook Pro with Retina display, to get the unibody enclosure as thin as possible to make it light and appealing to the eye, some compromises had to be made. Once the notebook had been disassembled, it had been noticed that Apple has used some assembly techniques that make most of the components on the notebook impossible to recycle or replace.

Examples of this is the proprietary screws that do not allow users to disassemble their own notebook without taking it to an Apple specialist, copious amounts of glue used to hold the battery in place and the Retina display and the glass together, this makes it impossible to recycle the glass and aluminium separately due to these parts being un separable. Also the internal electronic components of the notebook have been tightly packed, and to do this the laptop memory has been soldered to the logic board, eliminating any later RAM upgrades. Also the SSD cannot be swapped for anything larger as it has been custom built by Apple and attached to the logic board. Due to this, it is nearly impossible for users to make future performance upgrades to their notebook. Also single components will not be able to be recycled, due to them being soldered onto the one logic board.

This compromise results in the notebook to be completely non-recyclable and proves that Apple might have misleading information on their environmental reports. Since the Retina display has been glued to the glass and aluminium unibody, the casing cannot be re smelted and reused in a future product, thus waste product is created. Also internal components cannot be recycled due to most the components being directly soldered onto the logic board just to save space. This design pattern has serious consequence not only for consumers and the environment, but also for the technology industry as a whole.

The reason Apple has done this is to maintain their standard of a thin, light and robust product, under a beautiful enclosure that is appealing to the eye. This could not be possible without some of the non-recyclable components used, thus apple has chosen aesthetics over recyclability (end-of-life).

Cost Vs. Recyclability

Apple claims that once an Apple product has reached the end of its useful life, they will help customers recycle the product responsibly. Apple has a recycling program in the US where they will collect all e-waste, disassemble all equipment and reuse key components in future product. The only problem with this is that the program is only available in the US.

Apple does not have an Apple certified recycling program anywhere outside the US. This means third party organisations are taking control of the final phase of the lifecycle for Apple products outside of the US.

The reason Apple don’t have its own international recycling program, is the cost involved in the maintenance and control of overseas recycling hubs. Thus Apple has chosen cost over recyclability.

Overall, these compromises have been made so Apple don’t have to spend more profit investing in recycling hubs overseas and so that they can maintain their professional standard. These compromises result in their products not being completely sustainable, as in overseas countries, Apple don’t take care of the end-of-life stage, consequently products could harm the environment due to the dumping of products once it has reached the end of its useful life. In this modern day, customers want their products to be small yet robust; companies like Apple have to make their decision on using these competing components that restrict recyclability, to please their customers, yet compromise sustainability in harming the environment due to wastage of material at the end-of-life phase.