Understanding The Concept Of The Knowledge Management

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

Introduction

Knowledge is increasingly being recognised as a vital organisational resource that provides competitive advantage. The creation and capture of knowledge is critical to a firm’s success especially in the fast changing market place and economy. If knowledge is not captured and shared, great amounts of productivity will be lost reinventing the wheel when personnel change or new projects are initiated (Carlson, 1999). Knowledge management (KM) is a formal process used to determine the knowledge a company has that is beneficial to others, and making it easily available to those who need it (Carlson, 1999). The process involves formal techniques for knowledge and information capture such as lessons learned during the execution of a project and the organisational best practices. It also includes a well-established KM tool to facilitate the transfer of knowledge between employees (Carlson, 1999).

The Information Technology (IT) sector has had shortcomings in successfully executing projects due to many factors which, if thoroughly examined can turn around the sectors failing records to one that highlights tremendous successes (Al-Ahmad, et al 2009). Project management therefore plays a crucial role in producing these successes.

A knowledge portal is a web application that operates as a gateway to access project information, experts, personal ideas, individual knowledge, lessons learned and best practices in an organisation. The implementation and use of a knowledge management portal can be utilised to integrate and manage IT project information, team collaboration, project processes, and expertise (Roeseler, Augustyniak and Arsenault, 2005). It improves knowledge sharing, accountability, productivity and success of a project in an efficient and cost-effective manner.

Project Definition

1.2 Purpose of the project

This project focuses on the development of a knowledge management portal as an integration tool, an access tool and a communication tool to support project management in a software development company. This is achieved through the aim and objectives illustrated below:

1.2.1 Aim of project

The aim of this project is to develop a knowledge management portal to support Information Technology project management in a software development enterprise.

1.2.2 Objectives of Project

1. Perform a literature review on the topic of knowledge management to understand its concepts, technologies and analyse how Knowledge Management can improve organisational effectiveness.

2. Analyse knowledge portals, its features and the criteria for a successful design and implementation of a Knowledge Portal (KP).

3. Analyse the concept of Knowledge management systems and the various KMS tools for the facilitation of KM initiatives.

4. Evaluate the critical success factors for IT project management in a software development organisation.

5. Design and development of a knowledge management portal that will be effectual in the success of IT project management.

6. Validate the knowledge management portal through interviews and online surveys.

7. Validate the portal by populating it with a case study from the literature.

1.3 Research Methodology

The research methodology in this project would rely on secondary sources. This work includes the analysis of collected data to understand the usefulness and benefits of knowledge management portal in aiding software development project management.

The project involves performing a literature review of quantitative and qualitative studies on the critical success factors for IT project management. This would entail the review and study of books, articles, journals, reports and papers to understand definitions, evaluate and analyse concepts.

It entails the development of a web application to perform the functions of a knowledge management portal using PHP and MySQL server. Also, it involves populating the portal based on case study from the literature.

1.4 Contents and Structure of project

This project consists of seven chapters which are outlined below:

Chapter 1: Introduction

This Introduction chapter gives a description of the aims and objectives of this project. It also explains the purpose and methodology used in the research work.

Chapter 2: Understanding the concept of knowledge management

Chapter 2 focuses on the concept of knowledge management, defining the basic concept of data, information and knowledge and their relationship to gain insight into KM. It discusses the taxonomies of knowledge and their modes of conversion. It also explains knowledge management processes and the factors that influence knowledge management in organisations.

Chapter 3: Knowledge Management systems (KMS)

This chapter based on literature review, discusses the concept of knowledge management system and the various types of KMS tools being used to facilitate KM initiatives. It explains the modes of KMS and differentiates between a KMS and an Information Management System (IMS).

Chapter 4: Understanding Knowledge portal

This chapter based on literature review, focuses on the concept of knowledge portal, explaining its features and functionalities and gives a description of the knowledge portal framework. It describes the elements and benefits of a knowledge portal.

Chapter 5: Information Technology Project Management

This chapter provides an overview of IT Project management, identifies the factors that influence IT Project Failure as well as the reasons for their failure. It analyses the critical success factors needed for a successful IT project management. Project Quality management and its elements are also explained and analysed.

Chapter 6: Knowledge Portal Development and Design

This chapter describes the development and design of a knowledge management portal for a software development company.

Chapter 7: Analyses and Validation

This chapter describes the validation process through interviews and populating the portal with a case study from the literature. It also evaluates the critiques of the interviewees.

Chapter 8: Conclusion

The final chapter contains a summary of all other chapters, discusses the conclusion of the research and recommendations for future works.

Chapter 2.0 Understanding the Concept of Knowledge Management

2.1 Introduction

It is important to understand the concepts that correlate to make up knowledge, as a fundamental factor of knowledge management. This chapter focuses on the concepts of data, information and knowledge, and the relationship between them. The taxonomies of knowledge and knowledge conversion model are analysed and explained.

The need to define and differentiate between data, information and knowledge, and the relationship between them gives a better insight into knowledge management. It also presents a clearer understanding between information management (IM) and knowledge management.

2.2 Data: Data is raw with no content, can exist in any form and has no meaning beyond its existence (Groff and Jones, 2003). According to Zins (2007) data which have not been processed for usage exists in forms such as symbols, signs, numbers and characters. Data are incoherent facts and observations that could easily be converted to information when sorted, analysed and organized. Data can be stored in a spread sheet, database or repository. Examples of data include 1453234, 45, Yes, No. These data sets do not have any meaning until they are processed into a usable form and put in a context.

2.3 Information: Information is data that has been processed into a meaningful form. Data is collected together with context, analysis and interpretation so as to be meaningful to others. Information is much more easily identified, organized and distributed thereby making decision-making easier. It can be represented as facts, figures, writings, statements and statistics. It is received via a communication process.

2.4 Knowledge: Knowledge is information that has been analysed, reflected upon, and synthesized. Knowledge is richer and more meaningful than information. It includes capability, familiarity, perception, awareness and understanding gained through experience (Servin, 2005). Davenport and Prusak (1998) defined knowledge as a mixture of values, information and expert insight that provides a guide for the evaluation and integration of new information and experiences. It does originate and is applied in the mind of individuals. Knowledge is commonly viewed as know-how or applied action in organisational terms and it is embedded in documents, repositories, organisational practises, process, routines and norms (Servin, 2005), (Davenport and Prusak 1998). Alavi and Leidner (2001) also defined "knowledge as a justified belief that increases an entity’s capacity for taking effective action". The two major points derived from this definition are that knowledge has to be expressed and communicated in an understandable way for it to be useful to others. Also, only the information processed in individuals mind by reflecting, analysing, learning or enlightenment is useful.

2.5 The relationship between data, information and knowledge

The relationship between data, information and knowledge is strong. According to Stenmark (2002), in order for data and information to be interpretable, knowledge is required. Data and information are primarily useful in the creation of new knowledge. Data also known as unprocessed information, when used in the right context becomes information. From information, knowledge is gotten as learning occurs. Knowledge is the incorporation of information, data, and experience.

Information management involves the storing, organising, retrieval and provision of access to information relevant to an organisation.

KM is the management of the knowledge that resides in an individual, the flow of the knowledge in terms of knowledge creation, storage, transfer and application for competitive advantage in an organisation. It focuses on utilizing new ways to channel raw data into meaningful information and knowledge.

Figure 1: The relationship between data, information and knowledge

2.6 Taxonomies of knowledge

Nonaka (1994) described two types of knowledge: tacit and explicit knowledge.

2.6.1 Tacit knowledge: Tacit knowledge refers to personal knowledge in people’s minds that cannot easily be expressed because it is usually applied to a specific context (Nonaka 1994). It includes both cognitive and technical skills. Cognitive skills comprises of an individual’s aptitude, mental maps, viewpoints, cultural beliefs, insights, images, intuition, paradigms, values and perceptions (Alavi and Leidner, 2001). The technical skills consist of craft, experience, skills, expertise, capabilities and knowhow. Tacit knowledge is complex because it is difficult to capture and communicate to other individuals but it is considered highly invaluable and beneficial.

2.6.2 Explicit knowledge: Explicit knowledge refers to knowledge that has been documented and can easily be transferred among individuals (Groff and Jones, 2003). Explicit knowledge is objective, formal, rational, organised and systemised. It can be written in words, sentences, numbers and formulas (Nonaka 1994). Examples of explicit knowledge include instruction manuals, diagrams, written procedures, best practices, research findings, business plan and lessons learned. An example is journal containing relevant information on IT project management written by an experienced project manager.

2.7 Modes of tacit and explicit knowledge

The Nonaka and Takeuchi KM model illustrates the different modes of explicit and tacit knowledge and knowledge transfer as a spiral process (Nonaka, 1994).

2.7.1 Socialisation (tacit to tacit): socialisation is the transfer of tacit knowledge from an individual to the tacit knowledge of another person (Nonaka, 1994). It involves having acquired skills, shared experience and the sharing of mental models. Socialisation has been facilitated by the use of internet technology tools such as email, groupware and collaboration (Sharif et al, 2004). The use of socialisation for knowledge creation can be difficult, challenging and time-consuming, but it is an efficient means of knowledge creation. An example is the CodeBeamer software used in various organisations. It provides discussion boards, wikis and blogs for employees to share knowledge and ideas.

2.7.2 Externalization (tacit to explicit): is the process of converting tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge. It involves transforming the experience, beliefs and skills of individuals into an easily readable and understandable form. Externalization is mainly practiced among individuals in a group. The process can be created and developed via deduction, induction, and analogy (Khalil 2006). Artificial intelligence technique plays a significant role in this process in the extraction and modelling of knowledge (Sharif et al, 2004). For example, Chevron uses SharePoint portal to collect the lessons learned in projects. The employees upload these lessons learned to the portal for future use.

2.7.3 Combination (explicit to explicit): Combination can be described as the process which transfers bits and new forms of explicit knowledge to develop more useful forms of explicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge can be disseminated through meetings, briefings and presentations (Sharif et al, 2004). It can also be stored in usable forms such as documents, email, databases. The combination process is used among groups in various organisations for knowledge transfer. An example of a knowledge portal is the CodeBeamer portal that integrates content and documents and enables internal and external users to interact with them.

2.7.4 Internalisation (explicit to tacit): Internalisation is the process where an individual understands and absorbs explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge (Nonaka, 1994). The process occurs when the experiences gained by an individual is utilized within his personal tacit knowledge (Khalil 2006). An example is when an individual reads or learns from different experts, he can apply the knowledge with his to create a new knowledge.

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Figure 2: Nonaka’s SECI model

2.8 Knowledge Management

The field of knowledge management involves the management of data, information and knowledge within an organization to gain a competitive advantage. It is the systemic process for the acquisition, organization and communication of tacit and explicit knowledge of individuals in an organisation to enable others make use of it effectively to enhance productivity (Alavi& Leidner (1999). Davenport & Prusak (1998) defined KM as the act of utilizing and developing knowledge assets of an organization with the intention of improving the organization’s objectives. It entails the turning of individual knowledge into corporate knowledge and enabling its sharing and application throughout an organization to enhance performance and productivity. The process involves practices and procedures to gather information such as lessons learned and best practices, systems for knowledge transfer between employees, and the tools to aid the process. KM is applied in organisations to help manage the skills, expertise and experience of employees effectively. It provides the organisation with the accurate information for proper decision making in order to achieve and improve the organisational goals and objectives. KM is the systematic management of vital knowledge and its associated processes of knowledge creation, gathering, managing, sharing, usage and utilisation (Anand, 2011). This is performed with the use of KM tools to effectively capture, share and use the knowledge of individuals in an organization (Randeree, 2006).

2.9 Knowledge management processes

According to Davenport and Prusak (1998), KM processes are knowledge generation, codification, and transfer. Alavi and Leidner (2001) divided knowledge management cycle into four processes which are knowledge creation, storage/retrieval, transfer and application. Allameh, Zarea and Davood (2011) combined various authors’ terminologies and presented six processes of KM cycle known as knowledge creation, knowledge capture, knowledge organization, knowledge storage, knowledge dissemination and knowledge application. Anand (2011) states that KM processes are divided into four which are knowledge capture and creation, knowledge organization and retention, knowledge dissemination and knowledge utilization.

2.9.1 Knowledge creation: knowledge creation is the ability for an organisation to identify, capture, acquire and create knowledge. It involves the development of new content from within and outside the organisation. Knowledge is created through social, collaborative and interactive processes at individual and organisational levels. Successful organisations are organisations that are consistent in the creation and circulation of new knowledge, and apply it throughout the organisation, its products and services, and systems (Allameh, Zarea and Davood, 2011). Nonaka (1994) identified a knowledge creation model that involves the conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge.

2.9.2 Knowledge storage: It is vital to categorize and store knowledge in repositories in a standard format for future use. The use of IT for knowledge storage systems plays an important role in knowledge management. Information technology tools for data storage and retrieval such as data warehouses, data mining, databases, and document management systems are effective in enhancing organisational knowledge.

2.9.3 Knowledge transfer: knowledge transfer is the process of sharing knowledge between individuals and groups in an organisation (Davenport and Prusak, 1998). Factors that influence knowledge sharing are organisational and personal values, trust, organizational resources, incentives and information technology (Allameh, Zarea and Davood, 2011).

2.9.4 Knowledge dissemination: Allameh, Zarea and Davood, (2011) defined knowledge dissemination as a form of knowledge exchange management established in an organization to encourage innovation. It involves creating an increase in the awareness of past procedures and adoption of procedures decision-making. Methods of Knowledge dissemination include the use of reports, publications, bulletins, training and courses and National conferences.

Knowledge dissemination involves sharing of tacit and explicit knowledge within an organization (Anand, 2011). He also stated that the major factors that support knowledge dissemination are incentives and supportive organisational culture.

2.9.5 Knowledge preservation: involves the use of systematic approaches to preserve critical knowledge. The IAEA defines knowledge preservation as the process of providing an organizational system to maintain, preserve and store knowledge over time for future use. Methods of knowledge preservation include coaching and mentoring, knowledge maps and ontological models. The best practices to preserve explicit and tacit knowledge for KP involves the use of knowledge bases, relational databases, online collaboration, document management system, team work and collaboration with CoP.

2.9.6 Knowledge maintenance: this entails the update of the knowledge repository on a regular basis and the identification of out-dated parts. Knowledge stored in knowledge bases, repositories, ontologies and databases should be maintained. This is to be able to keep up with the rapidly changing world. Knowledge maintenance ensures that the information and knowledge being shared and used in an organisation are relevant continually lead to productive outcomes (Degler Duane, 2001).

2.9.7 Factors influencing knowledge management in organisations

The factors that influence knowledge initiatives in an organisation are people, process, organisational culture and technology. People are the core of KM in an organisation. It is the people who influence the culture of an organisation, provide the necessary processes, manage the knowledge and use the required technology (Dubois and Wilkerson, 2008). KM processes and the techniques used to create, organise, apply and transfer knowledge are vital to KM success.

The nature of the organizational culture comprises of the values and beliefs of employees, incentives and reward system, rules and standards for appropriate conducts. An effective organisation fosters an organisational culture that consists of procedures and policies that values KM and promotes knowledge sharing among employees. Technology is also an important component in KM as it enables the storage, sharing and retrieval of knowledge.

2.9.8 Conclusion

The meanings of data, information and knowledge have been discussed and their relationship explained. Organizational knowledge is created based on the conversion of the tacit and explicit types of knowledge in a spiral manner. The concept of KM has been discussed in this chapter describing how KM is highly important and a major resource for organisations, management practices and economies. KM supports the process of creating, capturing, transferring, sharing, applying, preserving and maintaining both explicit and tacit knowledge. People, process, organisational culture and technology are the factors that influence KM initiatives in an organisation.

Chapter 3.0 Knowledge management systems

3.1 Introduction

KMS are systems and technologies used to support KM practices in organisations to improve organisational performance. This chapter discusses the concept of KMS and differentiates between IMS and KMS. The various types and models of KMS are also explained.

3.2 What is a knowledge management system?

A lot of organisations are developing KMSs to facilitate and enhance knowledge creation and sharing to improve their competitive advantage. Knowledge management systems can be defined as a class of information systems that are utilised in managing organizational knowledge (Alavi and Leidner, 2001). The systems facilitate and support KM processes such as knowledge creation, sharing and application to enable an organization achieve its business goals. The function of KMS is to help employees perform their jobs more effectively, enhance decision-making, increase creativity and productivity, eliminate mistakes, provide access to the sources of knowledge and information, and provide better services.

KMS operate with IT and can be implemented in various forms such as intranet, portals, groupware and databases. The main applications of information technology to organisational KM initiatives are the internal benchmarking or coding and sharing of best practices, mapping of internal expertise and creation of knowledge networks (Alavi and Leidner, 2001). Some roles of IT in knowledge management include identifying subject experts, maintaining and usage of skills databases, access to past projects and lessons learned, connecting people to share knowledge and working together in virtual teams (Alavi and Leidner, 2001). For a KMS to be successful, it must meet user requirements and achieve the necessary quality result (Aggestam, 2008). Hence, a KMS cannot be a success and would not accomplish its purpose if it is not used, irrespective of the quality of the technology (Aggestam, 2008).

3.3 Types of Knowledge Management systems

These are KM tools that support knowledge creation, knowledge storage and knowledge transfer in order to improve decision-making. KMS provides a means to incorporate new experiences and information from individuals. These tools have their features and perform various functions.

3.3.1 Communities of practice (CoP): COP is a network that explores ways of working, identify solutions, and share good practices and ideas. A CoP provide an environment that that encourages the creation, development and sharing of organisational knowledge. An example is Online Virtual communities that enable individuals to network, share and develop knowledge. They create an avenue that supports fast problem solving, avoids re-inventing the wheel, and provides access to experts.

3.3.2 Groupware: Groupware is computer-based software for a group of people working together on a common task. The collaborative system enables the creation, sharing and storage of knowledge across the group. Groupware can be used for communication, cooperation, coordination, problem-solving and collaboration (Tyndale, 2002). It provides real-time meeting and decision support, database access, newsgroups, chats, data conferencing, email and video-conferencing.

3.3.3 Web 2.0 technologies: these are applications that aim to improve interaction and provide greater collaboration amongst users. The utilization of Web 2.0 applications in knowledge management increases knowledge creation and transfer in an organisation (Razmerita, Kirchner and Sudzina, 2009). It provides a platform that enables individuals’ share their ideas, beliefs, perspectives, and experiences. Examples of Web 2.0 technologies include blogs, wikis, multimedia sharing services, podcasts and social networking.

3.3.5 Document and Content Management system

These are systems mainly used to manage projects, documents knowledge-based processes and websites. They can be very beneficial to KM, by improving the quality of explicit knowledge, and providing support to the transfer of tacit knowledge by identifying experts and supporting collaborative projects. These systems offer the abilities to integrate, systematize, and organize knowledge from different sources (Benbya, Passiante and Belbaly, 2004). They are used to store documents, control access to the documents, maintain an audit and search documents (Tyndale, 2002).

3.3.6 Portals: A portal is a web site that provides access to customizable content based on specific end-user interests and needs (Roeseler, Augustyniak and Arsenault, 2005). Examples include Amazon, MyYahoo and MyCalifornia. It gives the right people the right access to the right applications and documents and also supports knowledge management and internal communications. It provides employees with in-time relevant information they need to perform their duties and make efficient business decisions (Benbya, Passiante and Belbaly, 2004).

3.3.7 Intelligent Systems: Intelligent systems are systems that utilise the expertise and experience of human-expert(s) to solve different problems (Grljević and Bosnjak, 2011). They simulate their reasoning and behaviour in a specific problem domain pertaining to an organisation. They are used in the creation of corporate knowledge, its transfer and dissemination. Examples of intelligent agent systems are expert systems, intelligent agents and decision support systems.

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Figure 3: Framework for Knowledge Management System

3.4 Models of Knowledge Management System

Khalil (2006) identified and described the two models for knowledge management system: the repository and network models.

3.4.1 Repository model: this model is aimed at the creation and maintenance of explicit knowledge. Here, the repository system is used for the transfer of knowledge among individuals in an organisation. Examples of the information technologies used for the development of organizational knowledge repository systems are relational database, intranet, internet and document management systems. These knowledge repositories are built using internal and external knowledge such as internal best practices, internal reports, memos, competitive intelligence and trade journals.

3.4.2 Network model: the network model uses information and communication technologies to foster knowledge sharing in an organisation. The knowledge in this model, remains with the individuals and is transferred via direct communication and contact. Organisations that use the network model develop a knowledge map and corporate yellow pages that allow employees locate experts in the organisation.

3.5 Differences between IMS and KMS

3.5.1 Information management system: Information management (IM) is centred on the management of information in explicit representations and codified objects such as manuals, diagrams, procedures, best practices, research findings, business plan and spreadsheets throughout their lifecycle (Randeree, 2006). IMS are computer systems utilised for the storage, search and retrieval of information. It is a technique used for a large domain of archived data and documents acquired from several sources and are stored electronically (Thomson, 1997).

3.5.2 Knowledge Management System: KM does not focus primarily on data on information alone. Its main focus is on learning, experience, insight, innovation, skills, expertise and intelligence of individuals in an organisation. KMS are IT based systems developed to manage organisational knowledge. They are information systems that facilitate and enhance the capture, storage, retrieval, dissemination and application of knowledge (Alavi and Leidner, 1999). KMS ranges from a simple database to more elaborate systems like document management systems, knowledge map, expert systems, internet applications and groupware (Khalil, 2006). Collaboration tools such as web portals support communication, collaboration and teamwork. A data warehouse and knowledge discovery tool helps in analysing data for effective decision making while corporate yellow pages allow an easy locating of experts in an organization. These tools lessen the tasks to create, acquire, store and use organizational knowledge while fostering social interactions and communication in an organisation (Khalil, 2006).

3.6 Conclusion

An understanding of KMS and their functions have been provided in this chapter. Knowledge management systems are IT tools that aid organizations in the creation, sharing, transfer and usage of knowledge as well as foster collaboration. The functions and purposes of the various types and models of KMS were also discussed. IMS are described as systems that deal solely with managing and providing information while KMS handles the knowledge in an organisation.

Chapter 4: Understanding Knowledge portal

4.1 Introduction

A knowledge portal is a KMS that is used to enable the organizing, storing, and accessing of information and knowledge. This chapter would analyse the concept of knowledge portal, its features and functionalities and its framework. The elements and benefits of a KP would also be discussed in this chapter.

4.2 Knowledge Portal

Knowledge portals are being used by many organisations to effectively manage organisational knowledge. A knowledge portal supports KM processes and activities varying from knowledge creation, transfer, knowledge sharing to knowledge storage (Van et al, 2005). It operates on a standardised web interface, transmits information, integrates different applications and data, and gives access to external and internal sources. A KP is a single-point access system that provides fast, easy and timely access to information and knowledge to employees who share common goals. Collins (2003), states that knowledge portal enables employees access to information, facilitates collaboration, fosters decision- making and take actions on work-related processes regardless of geographical location or information format. Many organisations and universities have built their own web-based knowledge portals for collaboration and communication. It is a solution that supports the users in their daily activities and provides an effective knowledge environment to a large number of users in an organisation. The role of a knowledge portal includes the facilitation of knowledge creation, sharing of ideas, obtaining knowledge, sharing and discovery by allowing users to publish ideas, working collaboratively, storing and retrieval of knowledge and information. Knowledge portals are important because they integrate huge intellectual resources and knowledge assets in a central platform that is accessible through a web interface (Goswami, 2007).

4.3 Features and functionalities of KP

The features and functions of a KM Portal have been identified by various researchers. According to Alavi and leidner (2001) the functionalities of a KM portal include coding and sharing of best practices, creation of corporate knowledge directories and creation of knowledge networks. The key features of a knowledge management portal are classified into seven categories by (Lee H.J et al, 2009) as communication, collaboration, contents, coordination, customization, community and connection. Tsui, Yu and Lau (2007) identified information and communication, collaboration and communities, content management, business intelligence and learning as the functions of a km portal.

According to the IAEA (2009), a knowledge portal acts as an integration tool, an access tool and a communication tool. It functions as an integration tool by providing a single point of access to various systems such as document management, operating procedures and work control in an organisation. This enables a quick and easy retrieval of information. It also provides operates as an access tool to other organisation resources such as work guidelines and standards, safety standards, software designs and training materials. As a communication tool, it enables individuals, work and project teams to create, share and discuss ideas and knowledge.

Some major functions of a knowledge portal include security, collaboration and community, search, network, content management, personalisation and customisation, business intelligence, scalability, easy to use, learning, extensibility and administrative tools (Collins 2003).

The communication functions in a knowledge portal are Discussion groups, wikis, blogs, conferencing and e-mail. Search and version control are the most common content management features. Personalisation and customisation enables the users to customise their individual work environment according to their preferences. Active process support is through tasks, to-do lists, workflows and checklists.

4.4 The knowledge portal framework

The framework describes the main features and applications of a KP. According to (Benbya, H et al, 2004) the framework is classified into three main layers: the core layer, supportive layer and web services. The core layer consists of applications that support the functions of knowledge portals. These applications consist of administrative tools, content management, publishing, personalisation, collaboration and search. The second layer which is the supportive layer comprises of applications that are essential for the adequate functioning of the portal. It consists of security, scalability and profiling. The third layer is the web services which are services that are provided to users by an organisation. It ranges from news, business services, and analyses.

Figure 4: knowledge portal framework

4.5Elements of a knowledge portal

4.5.1 Taxonomy: Taxonomy is a categorisation scheme used to classify information. It groups similar information together to aid users sort through large number of documents. Taxonomies are beneficial in organisations in the areas of search, browsing, navigation, data control and mining, information delivery and schema management. Taxonomies can be generated automatically based on the metadata provided.

4.5.2 Metadata Repository: Metadata is defined as information that describes another piece of information. The metadata repository is a database that holds metadata of the contents and its structure within the portal.

4.5.3 Application server: supports the Java Platform Enterprise Edition (J2EE). It provides the knowledge portal with services such as security, load balancing, transaction support, and data services. It also provides the development and runtime infrastructure for the portal.

4.5.4 Web server: The web server delivers web pages and contents accessed via the internet using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It works together with the application server to provide runtime environment for client requests. The two most widely used web servers for portals are Apache and Microsoft Internet Information Server (IIS).

4.5.5 Database: databases are used to store and monitor information in the KP such as users names, passwords, profiles, personalised settings, web services, security and users queries.

4.6 Benefits of knowledge portal

A KP supports Knowledge Management processes and activities. The implementation and use of KP in an organisation, does establish and promote an environment of knowledge creation, sharing and usage (Davenport, DeLong, and Beers, 1998). A major benefit of knowledge portal is the single point access to corporate knowledge, resources and knowledge experts through a standardized web interface.

KP facilitates increased collaboration within and across an organisation. It improves the access, workflow, and sharing of content within and across project teams, departments and the organization. It also facilitates an improved document management and publishing for users. The benefits of KP also include higher competitive advantage, cost reduction, organised and structured information, increased employee productivity and reduced access time (Raol et al, 2003).

4.7 Conclusion

This chapter has described KP as a tool for the implementation of knowledge management practises. Its features, functionalities, framework, the elements and benefits of KP were also discussed.

Chapter 5: Information Technology Project Management

5.1 Introduction:

This chapter gives an overview of IT Project management, identifies the factors that influence IT Project Failure as well as the reasons for their failure. It also analyses the critical success factors for IT project management. Project Quality management and its elements are also explained and analysed.

5.2 Overview of IT Project Management

A project can be defined as a unique set of activities, performed by an individual or organization, which have a definite start and finish points, to meet specific objectives within defined schedule and cost (Pinto and Slevin, 1988).

Project management is defined as the skills, tools and processes required to effectively manage a project successfully. It involves the ability to plan, organise, direct and control projects to achieve its required goals (PMI, 1996). Project management processes or project lifecycle are divided into five groups: initiating, planning, executing, monitoring, controlling and closing.

The applications of IT in various business and corporations are nearly limitless. IT enhances the productivity, efficiency and effectiveness of the employees and streamlines the organisational processes through the connectivity that it offers (Al Neimat, 2005). IT also enables business growth by providing access to new markets and new partners.

Nowadays, in several IT projects, the technology research and applications are over-emphasised but the role of project management is neglected (Daojin Fan, 2010).

IT project management is the process through which information technology projects are planned, monitored and controlled. It entails controlling the project scope, costs, schedule, risks and quality through project management processes (Standing et al, 2003). IT project management often experience many problems due to the complexity of projects such as constant upgrades in technology, changes in demand and environmental changes.

It is fundamental to use an efficient and effective approach to integrate project management methods and processes during the implementation of IT projects.

Figure 5: Project Lifecycle

5.3 Factors influencing IT Project Failure

Considering the capabilities of IT, there has been limited success in applying it in real business environments and has a poor reputation in delivering its projects. According to the research performed by the Standish Group in 1995 on IT projects, showed that 16% of projects were completed on time, and within the estimated budget; 32% were cancelled before completion, while 52% accrued costs higher than the original estimates and were completed behind schedule (Al-Ahmad, et al 2009). The same research conducted in 2003 shows that the overall project success had increased from 16% in 1994 to 28% in 2000.

The most common causes for IT project failures according to Al Neimat Taimour (2005) are related to project management and aligning IT with organizational cultures. Daniels and LaMarsh (2007) states that the main cause of IT failure is complexity caused by discontinuities among project objectives and project management practices. According to Al-Ahmad et al, (2006) reasons for IT project failure are also attributed to project management methodologies.

Among the factors that affect IT projects are:

• Lack of top management commitment to the project

• Unclear scope and objectives

• Unrealistic expectations

• Lack of user support and involvement

• Poor effective project management methodology and leadership

• Poor communication

• Lack of IT management

• Lack of required team knowledge and skills

5.4 Critical success factors for IT project management

Critical success factors (CSF) are activities that enable the success of IT projects. They enable the assessment of IT projects to achieve its goals and objectives. CSFs are required to operate throughout the life of every project. The keys factors for a successful IT project management include the following:

• Top management support: Top management support is a critical factor for the success of a project to accomplish project goals and objectives and align them with strategic business goals.

• Training and education: Recruiting, selecting, and training of the employees of the project team contribute to the success of the project.

• User involvement: it is important to involve the users in any project, taking into account their needs to meet their satisfaction.

• Effective communication: Another CSF is communication and collaboration between project stakeholders. The communication channels needed should be defined and managed effectively.

• Quality assurance and control: implementation of procedures and expectations for high levels of quality before and during project development to ensure a successful project.

• Effective project management: this involves the effective use of project resources, ensuring the project is within schedule and budget, achieving the set goals and meeting users’ requirements.

5.5 Project Quality management

Project quality management consists of the processes needed to ensure that the requirements defined for the project are delivered (PMI, 1996). The processes which include quality planning, quality control, quality assurance and total quality management interact with each other and other processes. Quality in project management refers to the quality of the product and the quality of the process to produce the deliverable (Phillips, 2004). The production of a quality product, must involve the implementation of a controlled and organized process to get the end result. A service deliverable must live up to the promises of the project manager with the project team having the skill sets required. Quality in a project is the ability of the project to meet the requirements of the customer. The experience and the productivity gained by the technology is the true measure of the worth of the project. Projects in software development involve specification, design, development, testing and operational support phases. They also require practices such as rigorous quality control and management of constraints and dependencies between members of the project team.

The project management framework from initiation, planning, execution, control, and closure of each phase is guarded and led by the demand for quality (Phillips, 2004). These five phases of project management contribute not only to the success or failure of the project, but also to the quality of the product. An IT project that produces quality results, services and products have quality at its core, which is accomplished through planning, guidance, and leadership.

5.6 Elements of Quality Management

5.6.1 Quality Planning: Quality planning is the process of determining the relevant quality standards and how they can be implemented in an IT project. It entails having a quality management plan to outline the project’s approach for quality and how it would be adhered to. The major approaches for quality planning includes benefit-cost analysis, benchmarking, use of flowcharts, design of experiments and cost of quality analysis.

5.6.2 Quality Assurance: QA is a part of quality management focused on the evaluation of the quality of a product against a standard or specified requirement for customers. QA involves the systematic activities implemented in each projects to prevent quality problems. It is usually done through planning and documentation such as quality plans, reports, inspection, test plans and quality audits. QA is a time effective, cost effective and better way of ensuring IT projects are completed correctly the first time. It is a prevention-driven method to ensure quality exists.

5.6.3 Quality Control: QC is the operational process and techniques implemented in the development of the product or software to ensure it meets the quality plans. Quality control must occur throughout an on-going IT project to ensure that quality exists. The methods that can be used to ensure QC throughout an IT project such as software development are inspection, peer review, statistical sampling and expert reviews.

5.6.4 Quality Analysis: Quality analysis entails the tracking and analysing of quality to identify quality problems. This involves the use of quality tools such as cause-and-effects diagrams, control charts, flowcharts, checklists and Pareto diagrams.

5.6.5 Total Quality Management: TQM is the organisation’s focus on fulfilling its customer’s satisfaction. TQM is concentrated on the identification of root causes of quality problems to rectify them at the source, in contrast to inspecting the software or product after it has been developed. It is involved with technical aspects of quality in addition to the participation of the people in quality, such as customers, software developers, employees, and programmers. TQM recognizes that perfect software produced, has little value if it does not satisfy the quality of what the customer wants. A concept of TQM is the continuous quality improvement that ensures all organisational processes are continuously improved to increase productivity and profitability.

Figure 6: Project Quality Management Overview

5.7 Conclusion

There are many factors that lead to both IT project success and failure. It is evident that effective project management plays a vital role in ensuring a successful project. A quality management plan should be defined in the project quality management process and used as input for quality assurance and control.