Understanding Project And Project Management

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

Literature review

The purpose of this review is to analyse critically the subject matter and related theories of the proposed problem by discovering important variables pertinent to the topic, identifying the relationship between ideas and practices, bringing to light the existing gaps and weaknesses in the subject of study and identifying possible recommendation for future study. (Gall. B and Gall, 1996)

This chapter would accentuate the basic procedures necessary to ensure the success of developmental projects and the ways, by which they can be properly managed. This review would make evident the step-by-step procedures by which various project goals and objectives are achieved successfully. This chapter would go a long way to relate literature to research findings and also introduce the reader to the main topic of discussion, which is project management.

As the world evolves and technology advances, programs and applications also become more sophisticated, these refined programs and rapid technological advancement has facilitated the smooth shift of businesses from their regular operational processes to more project-based operation. In the light of aggressive competition and turbulent business environments many organisations have seen the need to concentrate more on operational efficacy and productivity which may be achieved by introducing practices that would enhance the management of organisational resources. (Sandra Azzopardi, 2008) http://www.projectsmart.co.uk/evolution-of-project-management.html Consequently, on the verge of ensuring successful completion of project-based initiatives, it is important to employ the services of a very competent and efficient project manager who would control and organise a group towards successfully implementing a project and fighting to improved overall performance, this is because a successful project may present major changes to the way businesses will operate (Domingo Mamaril, 2010)

http://ezinearticles.com/?Project-Management:-Changes-in-the-Dynamics-of-Working-9-to-5&id=5109707

Understanding Project And Project management

Many authors have coined up numerous definitions that seek to explain the rationale behind a project. Although the execution of one project may differ from another, nearly all projects follow similar procedures, the most important factor is making sure that in the long run all project goals are met. The author emphasises that the concept behind undertaking a project is generated from identifying a particular problem that demands a solution and at the same time responds to a specific need that would eventually be beneficial to the end users.(Garry r. hearkens p.10, 2002).

A good project should always be backed by a clear purpose that seeks to yield good results and satisfy particular goals. Projects are meant to be realistic and achievable within a fixed period of time. Furthermore, projects are innovative, this is because they originate from new ideas and provide specific response to particular problems. (Cited, name of website, date last updated, date of publication) http://youth-partnership-eu.coe.int/youth-partnership/documents/Publications/T_kits/3/2_project.pdf

It is the attainable goals that drive a project and all the key processes necessary for its execution. While some projects are initiated to implement new strategies others are instigated to solve problems from the ground-up. According to the project management institute (PMI, 2004) a project is defined as "a temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product and service. Although this definition is widely accepted it lacks in certain areas which have been tackled and clearly defined by some authors (Jason Westland, 2006; Jack R.Meridith, Samuel J. Mantel Jr,2000; Gary R. Heerkens, 2002). A project goes beyond just creating unique products and services, the sole aim of any project is to address a pressing need by providing solutions that would beneficial and provide a lasting social change. In the same context a project can be defined as a unique but realistic approach used to find solutions to specific problems by producing a set of unique deliverables within a limited timescale, an appropriate budge and limited resources in order to satisfy particular needs and leave a long lasting change in the society.

Gary R. Heekens (2002) argues that a project is accompanied by a lot of risk and uncertainty that may pose a threat and question the ability to successfully accomplish proposed goals and objectives, thus a project is sometimes regarded as an adventure. The real challenge here is to find ways to overcome these risks when they present themselves. The inability to turn risks into results accounts to some reasons why projects fail. This subject would be discussed further in subsequent paragraphs

In a wider sense, a project is basically a proposed solution to a specific problem, it is well defined and because of its complex nature projects are broken down into subtask to make execution much easier. As the saying goes, "a problem shared is a problem solved", for this reason projects are divided into tasks which are then broken into work packages and further divided into work units. This hierarchical nature of projects has eased the implementation and execution process, thus with the institution of division of labour, every subtask is coordinated properly to work together for the good of the entire project. (Jack R.Meridith, Samuel J. Mantel Jr, 2000)

Project management

Jack R.Meridith, Samuel J. Mantel Jr,2000 emphasises that apart from the basic reason behind the initiation of a project, that is to achieve a specific goal, projects are also organised so as to focus responsibility and authority in on hand(individual or small group).Basically, within the project management cycle there is an individual called the project manager whose role is to coordinate and integrate the various activities necessary to be implemented by a small group (the project team) to produce a desired outcome. (Jack R.Meridith, Samuel J. Mantel Jr, 2000, p.12)

Project management as described the project management institute is, "…..the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirement" (PMI, 2000, p.6). Another author (Garry R.Heekerns, 2002 p.11) goes further to argue that although the definition seems direct, it is also vital to note that it is only through some level of education or on-the-job experience that skills can be developed for the appropriate use of the skills, tools and techniques necessary to solve the problem in question.

Project management is a frame work which involves the use of knowledge and skills and the coordination of tools and processes essential for successful project execution. Project management duties are accomplished by way of process such as initiating, planning, executing, controlling and closing but it is worthy to note that every project has its unique and ideal way of satisfying these processes. According to PMI project management can also be defined the various steps being taken to manage an on-going project. (PMI, 2000, p.6) http://www.unipi.gr/akad_tmhm/biom_dioik_tech/files/pmbok.pdf

Project life cycle (Project life span)

Just like human beings projects have a birth stage, a growth stage, maturity stage and an ending stage (death). Although projects are generally defined to have a beginning and an end, it is also important to take particular note of the middle stage because it is within this stage that most of the action occurs thus, paving a way for project completion. The various phases that a project passes through, from the beginning through to the middle and to the end is what works together to form the project life cycle.

Patel, M. B. & Prof. P.G. W. Morris (1999 p. 52) argues that "the life cycle is the only thing that distinguishes a project from a non-project" in the sense that life cycles and projects share a common characteristic; which is, having a specific beginning and end time (specific time schedule). A non-project on the other hand is assumed to be the exact opposite as its activities are repeated for day-day management purposes. (Patel, M. B. & Prof. P.G. W. Morris, Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Centre for Research in the Management of Projects, University of Manchester, UK, 1999, conflict contradict)

This argument is inconsistent as it contradicts the entire understanding of a life cycle. A vivid understanding shows the wrong usage of the world cycle in the term project life cycle; this is because a cycle is defined as any complete series of events that is repeated but this definition reverses the original description of a project as being a "one-time" activity accomplishable within a particular time schedule. According to R. Max Wideman, 2004 a more appropriate term in this sense would be "project life span".

Even though processes within projects are similar in nature, there isn’t any particular lifecycle that applies to all projects, for this reason project managers are challenged with the responsibility of critically thinking so as to access the project lifecycle stages that are required for successful project completion. In many cases projects fail to deliver because of the application of "One-Size-Fits-All" project management, a method which limits all sorts of projects to the same lifecycle. (R. Max Wideman, 2004) http://www.maxwideman.com/papers/plc-models/plc-models.pdf

Project phases

Every projects is characterised by phases that need to be completed, within these phases tasks are broken down (unique set of challenges) to make management easier. Collectively the project phases are referred to as the project life cycle and each phase usually includes a set of activities intended to establish the desired level necessary to ensure a transition to the next step in the cycle. Before each phase is brought to a close a review is conducted to conclude whether to proceed with the next phase, cancel the entire project, or repeat the previous phase. (the open university, 2012) (R. Max Wideman, 2004) http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=403254&section=5.1

Gary R Heerkens (2002) points out that the project lifecycle can be summarized into four basic phases but consist of six steps entirely. The four basic phases identified by (J. Westland, 2006) include initiation, planning, execution, and closure.

The four phase of the project life cycle. Adapted from J. Westland, The Project Management Lifecycle, Kogan Page Limited (2006).

An article posted by Roger Lever (2008) emphasise the need to write a proposal before project initiated, the proposal must be written in defence of the proposed project, stating clearly the importance and the deliverables attainable by the close-up of the project and also the long term benefits of the project if applicable intended. http://suite101.com/article/project-initiation-starting-in-the-right-way-a87438. A general object of a project as stated by is to reduce risk and concentrate on creating value http://epf.eclipse.org/wikis/openup/practice.mgmt.risk_value_lifecycle.base/guidances/concepts/project_lifecycle_203F87.html

The six steps identified by G.R.Heekens (2002) and the four phases identified by J. Westland (2006) have been combined and summarized into the table below.

Project phases

Project steps

Description

Initiation

Identify and frame the problem or opportunity

The project initiation phase begins with developing a business case which specifically defines the business problem and makes room for allocation of resources for undertaking a study that seeks to prove the possibility of realizing the proposed solutions. The project visions, objectives and deliverable are outlined after which a project team is appointed and work load is divided among its members (J.Westland 2006)

Planning

Identify and define the best project solution

Identify task and resource requirements

Prepare the control schedule and resource allocation

Estimate project cost and prepare

The project planning stage is a phase where strategic plans are made towards executing the project. In planning the project a project plan must be developed that would specify the different tasks, activities and resources required to complete the project. These steps would be combined into a project schedule which would be used by the project manager to access the development of the project. ( J. Westland)

Execution

Analyse risk and establish stakeholder relationship

Maintain control and communicate as needed during execution

This phase is followed up after the project has been approval by higher authority. This is where all plans in the previous phase are put to practise. This is a stage where the project outcomes are developed for the basic consumers’ approval; according to J. Westland (2006) it is known to be the longest project phase depending on the magnitude of the project. During the implementation process measures are also taken to monitor and control the progress of activities. (PUBLIC PROCUREMENT BEST PRACTICE GUIDE, 2008) http://www.publicprocurementguides.treasury.gov.cy/OHS-EN/HTML/index.html?1_3_project_lifecycle.htm

Closure

Manage to an orderly close-out

This is the last phase of the project life cycle, it involves performing some checks and balances to determine if all project closure conditions have been fulfilled, note any outstanding project activities, release project outcome and project closure reports to respective customers and project sponsors. Nonetheless, conducting a performance appraisal would help identify what went well and what didn’t so as to better advice the project manager in organization future projects

Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle Versus Project life cycle

The Deming cycle, popularly known as the plan-do-check-act cycle (PDCA) is a close embodiment of the project life cycle, this is because they both seek the same result which is to solve problems. Although the relationship between the deming cycle, popularly known as the plan-do-check-act cycle (PDCA) and the project life cycle can be conceptualised on a fairly general level, they must not be used interchangeably mainly because, unlike the project life cycle the PDCA is a continuous process which is never terminated. The diagram below shows the path of each cycle. http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newPPM_89.htm

fig

fig

The TQSC targets of a project

Just as laws are enacted to bring peace and order, in the same vein projects are controlled and confined by certain elements. These factors are manipulated in the most suitable way so as to reach a balance that will provide beneficial results. Time, cost and scope are the three basic constrains that define a project work. These three constrains put together makes up the project management triangle, all three constrains are interdependent on each other thus, a small change in time will affect the total cost and scope involved. The triangle is used as a guide or checklist in analysing the various uncertainties that may arise throughout the project. (Tutorials point, 2012.) http://www.tutorialspoint.com/management_concepts/project_management_triangle.htm

http://www.tutorialspoint.com/management_concepts/project_management_triangle.htm

Time is the most difficult component to manage among all three constrains because it is unpredictable and uncontrollable. Time, as the name implies is the total duration required to complete a particular project. It is only after a project has been apportioned time for implementation and execution that critical decisions and scheduling can be effected to allocate a level of financial expenditure that will produce deliverables in the long-run. http://www.exforsys.com/career-center/project-management/the-three-constraints-of-project-management.html (Copyright © 2000 - 2012 exforsys.com)

Cost is the total financial expenditure needed to execute a particular project. Every project required an estimated cost budget to ensure that the project is implemented within the proposed budget. There are a number of factors that may influence the cost budget of a project namely; material costs, the costs of labour, risk, and machines. It is a general observation that in many instances quality is positively related to cost, this is to say that high quality is powered by high cost; however this notion isn’t far from the truth because high quality demands the use of valuable materials that need financing.

Scope describes the deliverables attainable if the project is successful, they are the benefits derived from undertaking a particular project. It also defines the various resources needed to achieve the overall goal of the project with the intended quality, features, and functions of the product all in place. http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/project-help/a-short-course-in-project-management-HA010235482.aspx#BMproject (Carl Chatfield and Timothy Johnson)

Very few authors include quality as a fourth constrain. Quality in itself is the ultimate feature most appreciated in a product; this is because quality symbolizes high value and durability. Apart from skills and knowledge time is an influential factor in determining the quality of a product. In most instances, things done impetuously fail to deliver good quality. http://www.tutorialspoint.com/management_concepts/project_management_triangle.htm

Similarly it is important to include a fifth constrain which is the resource constrain. This constrain defines the ease with which various resources are made available and accessible. Resources are the basis of every project therefore, a project devoid of resources is as good as dead, this is because without using the right factors of production no actions can be taken to implement and execute projects. ( my own idea)

An example of a developmental project in Ghana was the "rural enterprises project" that lasted from December 1993 to March 2002. The objective of the project was to enable poor rural people to overcome poverty, this goal was met by transferring technical skills to rural areas to make it easier to get jobs and also improve the returns they get from their jobs by increasing output of small off-farm enterprises. The project was executed within a specific time, scope, approved cost budget and by using the resources necessary for fighting against poverty in rural areas. http://www.ifad.org/evaluation/public_html/eksyst/doc/prj/region/pa/ghana/gh_38s.htm

Cost

Resources

Quality

Scope

Time

Failure to completely satisfy these constrains could be disastrous as it might distort the whole project. These constrain also acts as factors for successful project management. In as much as project success is qualified based on certain factors, however, in a wider scope elements of project success differ from project to project and is peculiar to others, it mainly depends on what the organisation undertaking the project views as important. Generally, in the long-run all that matter is to ensure that the project is managed efficiently under the project constrains and is able to successfully turn problems into strengths. The success of a project is judged by the extent at which individual project goals are met (Garry Heerkens p. 26-29)

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework sets the stage for presenting the specific research question that drives the investigation being reported, it also gives direction to the research. A conceptual framework can also be described as a narrative or graphical presentation that highlights the main things to be studied and identifies the existing relationship between them. (Miles and Huberman, 1994, P18) http://www.engin.umich.edu/teaching/crltengin/engineering-education-research-resources/maxwell-conceptual-framework.pdf

Below is a graphical representation of the conceptual framework of my research

Execution

-build deliverables

-monitor and control;

.time

.cost

.quality

.change

.risk

.issue

.procurement

.acceptance

.communication

-phase review

Planning

-project plan

-resource plan

-financial plan

-quality plan

-risk plan

-acceptance plan

-communication plan

-Project procurement plan

-phase review

Closure

-project closure

-project completion

Initiation

-business case

-terms of reference

-project team

-project office

-phase review

Successful project management

The relationship that exists between these factors (phases) to be studied are that, because it is a cycle

One factor has to be completed before moving to the next

No factor can exist or work on its own thus, each factor is backed by another factor

All factors must be completed in order to successfully accomplish a project

Theoretical research Question

Theoretical research questions are questions that can be answered only by reviewing the secondary research that is, reviewing existing literature and theories. These research questions are based on a conceptual framework which identifies four phases of project. Although every project has its individual line of activities, the most common model in any project life cycle is the waterfall model. It is a default model for all projects which focuses on upfront analysis and a sequence with clearly defined deliverables for every phase. http://www.lifecyclestep.com/open/460.0OtherLifecycles.htm. The theoretical research questions are based on the general step by step procedure useful for undertaking a project and also on a few theories identified in the literature review. This chapter will explain into detail the gradual procedure that every project undergoes; from start to finish.

J. Westland (2004) identifies the four phases of a project as; project initiation, project planning, project execution and project closure, these processes however, have been rephrased and reduced to three parts by J. R.Meridith and S. J. Mantel Jr (2000); project initiation, project implementation and project termination. A first look at the proposed phases identified by the authors immediately brings to light a gap; an omitted phase (project planning phase) in the project life phases identified by J. R.Meridith and S. J. Mantel Jr (2000). To clarify the misconception, it can be realised form the authors’ book on project management "a managerial approach" that the project initiation and planning stages have been combined into one process. On the contrary, both phases are major stages and must stand individually to make room for comprehensive analysis of both phases that would eventually lead to a successful completion.

Question 1: What steps should be taken to initiate a new project?

The first stage of the project lifecycle is the initiation phase, it is the phase in which the ideas leading to the project are examined and explored. Although it is often underestimated, the project initiation stage is the most decisive factor in determining the success of a project. This project phase requires time, hard work and patience to ensure that the project is properly initiated so as to avoid incurring excess time, cost and resources which will also escalate the risk of project failure. (J. Westland, 2006)

The public procurement best practice guide (2008) has identified three stage of the project initiation phase; inception and prioritising Stage, design Stage, project approval and appointment of project management team stage. Moreover, the six phases identified by J.Westland (2006) are all incorporated into the three phases. This is illustrated in the diagram below

After the inception and prioritising stage where the needs of the project is identified and processed to formulate the project idea, the next step in line is the design stage which focuses on developing the project idea, by so doing it is necessary to develop a project case that would clearly defines the problem, opportunities and objects of the anticipated project, analyse the potential options in solving the problem, identify the cost, benefits and risk of the preferred solution, a preferred solution put forward for approval.( Department of Premier and Cabinet, Tasmania, 2003; public procurement best practice guide 2008) http://www.egovernment.tas.gov.au/__data/assets/word_doc/0013/15520/pman-temp-open-sml-proj-bus-case.doc http://www.publicprocurementguides.treasury.gov.cy/OHS-EN/HTML/index.html

Department of Treasury and Finance (2009), defines a business (project) case as a document that acts as form of guidance to senior executives in making decision on whether or not to invest assets into managing a project or new line of business. The paramount aim of a business case is to justify the need for the proposed project to the extent that senior manager will be persuaded enough to invest into the venture. A project case is a fundamental part of the project development process. (Department of Premier and Cabinet, Tasmania, 2003) http://prov.vic.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/1010g4.pdf .The project case is used throughout the project to track the progress of the project and observe that the cost, benefits, risks and issues are not deviating from what was originally documented. (Public Record Office Victoria, 2010) http://prov.vic.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/1010g4.pdf

Developing a business case

In developing a project case it is important to perform an environmental analysis that in one way or the other contributed to the need to undertake the project. In identifying any environmental circumstances that facilitated the creation of the project it’s equally important to gather all evidence to support the claim. http://www.cybf.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/CYBF_Problem_Solving_20111215.pdf Suggests that in identifying the business problem it is prudent to ask the "why?" question, state the problem derived from the "why?" question and finally make a detailed description on the problem in order to have a clear and succinct understanding and magnitude of the problem. Then write a brief statement that covers the key project problem and opportunity. After the project problems and opportunities have been defined exclusively, the next step involves identifying and analysing options that the organization can use to address the problem described in the business case. Then determine the various monetary and non-financial benefits that could be gained from using any of the prospective solutions and also estimate the costs that would be incurred on each alternate solution noting whether it is an operational or capital expense. A feasibility study is conducted to scale down the number of alternate solutions provided; this would eventually make it easier to choose from the remaining solutions. The study in itself helps to determine the rate at which each solution can satisfy the project problem. The potential risk involved in implementing the solution presented must be laid down and backed by a mitigation action to reduce the occurrence of the risk. The next step is to identify the issues that may affect the effectiveness of each solution to deliver positive outcomes. J. Westland (2006) suggests that assumptions concerned with adopting any of the proposed solution are put forward. Choose a suitable solution out of the various solutions identified and recommend it to be effected; this can be done by rating the alternative solutions so as to collectively come to agreement on a particular solution. J Westland (2006) recognizes another major step to take in initiating a project which is to "undertake a feasibility study", but as explained earlier the feasibility study is carry out when developing a business case therefore, it would still be within context to put it under "developing a business case" rather than letting it stand on its own as a major step. For this reason five instead of six steps were described.

The next step to follow after the approval of the business case is to establish the terms of reference on which the project is based. The terms of reference defines the scope of the project. Also known as the project chapter, the terms of reference is a document that specifies the structure and vital aspect of a project. (European Integration Office, 2011) http://www.evropa.gov.rs/evropa/ShowDocument.aspx?Type=Home&Id=526

According to J.Westland (2006), establishing terms of reference requires that three fundamental question are answered, these questions include ; what has to be achieved, who will partake in the project and how will the project be carry out. Basically the terms of reference should state the vision of the entire project, realistic objectives, specify the confinement of operation; that is the processes and areas that may or may not be covered by the project. The written document should also include the anticipated output of the project which would be physical satisfaction for customers and an addition gain to the organisation (training of employees, acquired knowledge and improvement in organisational work structure). http://www.mentoric.com/resource_project_tor.html. Identifying the project organisational structure would ensure that roles and responsibilities are duly assigned to the right individuals. The first sets of people to identify are the individuals going to use the product deliverables (customers); this is to ensure that the end product of the project satisfies their requirements. Stakeholders are individually that have specific interest concerning a particular project .within the project management structure the most important roles include the project sponsor, project manager, project review group and the project team members, each of these groups have individual responsibilities that have to be clearly defined in the terms of reference showing a line that connects their reporting activities. Develop a generic project plan highlighting the key milestones of the project. To conclude list the major risks, issues and constraints associated with the project and recommend action plans against it. (J. Westland, 2006)

Appointing a project management team is the first step towards the establishment of the project environment which is the physical existence of the project; however it is important to note that every project has its ideal staff requirements. Recruiting skilled professionals to occupy various project roles is achieved after the project roles and the number of people to occupy those roles has been clearly identified. In every case the first appointee is the project manager, this is because the project manager is responsible for selecting the right occupants for the appropriate roles. In ensuring that the right people occupy the right spots the project manager has to outline a complete job description for each role. In the job description the manager can identify the roles and the responsibilities of each role. The manager must also specify a recruitment process which extends to the various skills, key competence, experience, qualification needed to undertake each role identified. In some cases interpersonal traits and special conditions associated with particular roles are prerequisites for appointment. http://blog.method123.com/2008/03/17/appoint-the-team/#!prettyPhoto

Project office

The project office is the physical structure that houses members of the organisational structure. Also known as the war room the project office operates as a power house that serves as a centre for technical discussions and the core of all project activities. J. Meredith and S.J Mantel, Jr (2000) assert that the purpose of setting up a project office is to offer technical support in the use of project management tools. The modern era of technology has developed diverse modes of communication and has therefore made it possible to set up a virtual project office with project team members scatter all over the world rather than a physical location for all project activities. http://blog.method123.com/2008/03/24/set-up-the-project-office/#!prettyPhoto According to J.Westland there is the need to create a checklist to specify the steps required to set up a project office environment. The checklist should include:

The project details, that is, defining the role, responsibility and purpose of establishing the project office.

Establishing the premises that would befit the project and meets the requirements already definite

Procure both office and communication equipment’s that will facilitate the jobs of the project members.

Create templates for every phase of the lifespan of the project

Defining standards and processes for the project team to work by. This would be a source of direction and control for all team members.

Phase review

The phase review is the last step taken at the end of every project phase, this review is performed at the initiation stage, implementation and execution stage so as to update and ensure that all project objectives originally documented are being achieved as planned. Without the phase review it would be impossible to move onto the next phase of the project because it requires approval by senior management to warrant its advancement onto the next stage. The project review should report the progress of the overall project, the project schedule, expenses, staffing, deliverables, risk and issues that arise throughout the project phases. The phase review helps determine the effectiveness and efficiency in the use of the project management tools in supporting the project, identify significant project problems and corresponding solutions and to keep the project in the best shape through monitoring and controlling the project. http://www.method123.com/initiation-phase-review.php j.westland

Question 2: what steps should be taken in planning a project

Another key determinant of success in managing a project is to ensure that a comprehensive and well-developed plan is created to direct the path of the entire project. Just like a road map, a project plan acts as a guide which directs and controls the entire project to a successful finish. In planning a project there is the need to create certain important planning documents to help direct the project team during the course of the planning phase and throughout the rest of the project phases. G. Heerkerns (2002) classifies project planning into two components; Strategic component deals with understanding some of the principles and values of planning, while the tactical component on the other hand explains the calculated steps or procedures needed to create a comprehensive project plan. A project plan is very crucial as it is the key determinant of whether a project will succeed or fail.

The first step to take in planning a project is to create a detailed project plan which is used as a checklist throughout the project. E and R Larson (2004) states that to create a project plan the team must first reaffirm the project scope by creating a scope statement that specifies the projects problems, needs and objects, the derivatives of project completion, the key project milestones, activities and tasks. This statement is likely to change as the project advances to completion.http://www.watermarklearning.com/HowToCreateAClearProjectPlanExcerpt.pdf

The next step to take is to device a project schedule, this schedule should include a list of tasks and activities needed to be carried out and also specify the time and the resources needed to complete each task. After establishing these steps it would be easier to compute an accurate delivery date for each task. (Duncan Haughey, 2012) http://www.projectsmart.co.uk/project-planning-step-by-step.html. In creating a project schedule it is also important to identify the influential determinants needed to undertaking each task specified within the project. J. Westland identifies four types of dependencies in his book; "the project management life cycle."

Finish-to-start the dependent item/activity must finish before the actual activity can start

Finish-to-finish the dependent item/activity must be completed before the actual activity can be completed

Start-to-start the dependent item/activity must begin in order for the actual activity to start

Start-to-finish the dependent item/activity must start before the actual activity can be finished (J Westland,2006)

In project planning, J. Heagney (2012) highlights the important of developing the work breakdown structure before project scheduling, this is because while project schedule provides a sequential process by which work is performed, the idea behind the work breakdown structure (WBS) is to subdivide tasks into smaller tasks until these tasks can no longer be further divided, with this out of the way it would be easier to identify all tasks and accurately estimate the cost and time needed to achieve the end deliverables of the project. In addition, it is important to note that until all tasks have been identified it would be illusive to develop a project schedule (Joseph Heagney, 2012) fundamentals of project management.

The next step is to create a resource plan and build a resource schedule. In creating a resource plan one can simply assign resources to each of the activities identified in the project plan or then list the various inputs (materials) needed to achieve a desirable output. A detailed financial plan is created after the resource plan and it specifies the financial resources required to undertake the project, According to J. Westland (2006) in developing a financial plan it is important to list the various financial expenses (the types of costs to be incurred), estimate the unit cost for each expense type, complete an expense schedule that stipulates the exact time the cost would be incurred and finally creating an activity expense schedule that identifies the cost per activities being taken.

A quality plan is one of the required documents for any project, the main purpose of a quality plan is to lay down the expectations the project must achieve and how these expectations will be realised. In a more holistic view the quality plan describes the various qualities that the project’s outputs must have so as to achieve the desired outcomes. It also describes the quality of the management processes to be used in the project to produce the desired deliverables. The first thing to do in creating a quality plan is to define "quality" within the project. In project management quality can be defined as a measure of excellence such that the final deliverable fulfils the needs of the customer. Management in charge of quality assurance and control should identify the quality targets for every project requirement and must also create a quality assurance plan and quality control plan so as to improve the quality of set deliverables. . © 2013 TutorialsPoint.COM http://www.tutorialspoint.com/management_concepts/project_quality_plan.htm

Risk, in most cases is an unperceived venture and as much as we run away from it we never known when it will knock at our door. Undertaking any new venture comes with risks, therefore undertaking a project also comes with its own risks. Mark Zuckerberg once said "The biggest risk is not taking any risk ... In a world that changing really quickly, the only strategy that is guaranteed to fail is not taking risks." this goes to prove that by taking risks one is opened to learn more and to a larger extent succeed, but it also important that risks are calculate and prepared for in advance so as to prevent or reduce its impact in its occurrence. The risk plan should contain a list of likely risks indicating both high and low occurrence impact, as well as coining strategies to prevent the project from being disrupted should such listed problems arise. Furthermore, it is also important and helpful to also build a risk register (database) where all project risks can be recorded so as to make information retrieval and future documentation easier (Carlos Consulting Group, www.carlosconsulting.com)

The five steps as described by Carlos consulting group are as follows

1.Risk Identification

An iterative process of identifying which risks might affect the project

2.Risk Validation

Agreement that the risk is applicable to the project.

3.Risk Analysis

Process of determining the probability and impact of a risk. Methods include Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis

4.Risk Response Planning

Process of developing options and determining actions to reduce threats by categorizing them and proposing solutions accordingly

5.Monitoring and Control

Process of continuously observing the project and risks, Monitoring the trigger events that call for utilization of Contingency Plans

Table (Carlos Consulting Group, www.carlosconsulting.com)

The next step after a risk plan is to create an acceptance plan, the acceptance plan stipulates the criteria used by customers to acknowledge that the deliverables produced are satisfactory and meet their needs. Basically these criteria’s are based on the timeframe and the quality, as well as the cost of the end product(s) of the project. J westland

A communication plan is also vital as it aids in checks and balances. Proper dissemination of information to all project stakeholders would inform and help ensure that everyone is on the same page and are working towards the same objectives. G. Heerkens highlights in his book that there is no such thing as "the best medium" of communication but rather communication differs from one environment to another and it would be prudent to consider which basic communication approach would be suitable in a given situation. (G. Heerkens)

Nonetheless, a communication plan should include a list of all the project stakeholders and identify which stakeholder needs what information and when it would be needed. in addition to creating a communication plan it is also critical to creating a procurement plan prevents impulse buying by identifying the essential procurement requirement for the project; it includes the various good and services to be acquired from external suppliers in order to gain the maximum benefit in relation to a project. Additionally, the procurement plan helps maintain good buyer-seller relationships. (J. Westland, 2006)

A guide to project management book of knowledge (PMBOK) released in 1996 by the project management institution highlighted six phases that an effective project procurement plan must pass through; meanwhile, a revised and updated version (2008) of this same book has shorten the previous six steps into four simple steps. These four steps are explicitly described in the table below. (Project management institute, 2008)

Plan procurements

This is the first step of the procurement process; it involves identifying specific project needs that require goods and services from outside the project environment which cannot be provided by the project team. This same document specifies and approach and identifies potential contractors

Conduct procurements

In this second step the project team will receive proposals and applications from potential contractor, now it is left to the team to decide on which proposal to accept and subsequently award a legal contract

Administer procurements

This is a process of monitoring and control on the side of both parties (the contractor and contractee) this process manages the procurement relationship and ensure that each party complies to their contractual responsibility

Close procurements

This is the final processes and it done at the time of project closure since it involves the need to verify if all works and end products are satisfactory

Table Project management institute, 2008

A brief phase review should be conducted at the end of the planning phase; this is more or less like a checklist to ensure that the objects of this particular phase have been achieved as planned. Phase reviews go a long way to affect the progress of a project therefore, it should never be neglected. It is minute but very important information.

What steps should be taken in executing the project?

According to the NYS Project Management Guidebook the execution phase is the most time and resource consuming activity within the project; it is where the real action takes place to set the project rolling. This stage utilizes all the plans, schedules, procedures and templates that were prepared during previous phases. It develops the product or service that the project was commissioned to deliver. (http://www.its.ny.gov/pmmp/guidebook2/ExecutionAndControl.pdf)

Monitoring and control is a sub phase within the execution stage although it is something done throughout the entire project. It is the responsibility of the project manager and his team members to be taxed to capacity to deal with uncertainties or any unanticipated events while minimizing the impact on the project. J. Westland identifies nine management processes efficient for monitoring and controlling a project but first the project team have to build the deliverables for the project by identifying the processes, tasks and task deliverables of the phase. (http://www.its.ny.gov/pmmp/guidebook2/ExecutionAndControl.pdf)

The NYS Project Management Guidebook puts together all the nine processes identified by J. Westland and categories them into five simple processes as seen below:

Inaugurate execution: The project manager must first orient new team members; review the status of previous project phases then set the ball rolling to commence the execution phase.

Manage CSSQ: the project team must manage the changes made to the project scope and also manage the project schedule by recording the actual amount of time spent on a particular project task. Perform quality assurance and control management so as to ensure that the qualities of the deliverables are assured. Control project budget cost so as to formally and accurately record the actual expenses incurred throughout the project.

Monitor and control risks: the project team must also manage risk through a risk management process (initially prepared in the planning phase) that would ensure that all risk are identified and quantify so as to manage and reduce its potential impact on the entire project.

Manage Project execution: over here the project team does three very important things; manage issues arising, execute a communication plan and manage the acceptance of deliverables. Just like the risk process the issue process also identifies issues that are currently contributing to the decline of the project progress in meeting its objectives. An acceptance process is undertaken by presenting each deliverables to the customers for approval and sign-off. Proper communication is necessary to avoid any increment in project risk. Clear project communication ensures that the right information reaches the right people at the right time so as to make informed decisions.

Gain project acceptance: this process is done by conducting a final meeting concerning the status of the project and gain acceptance from the project manager, project sponsors and customers that the project execution and monitoring stage has been successfully completed and signature approved.

How should a project be brought to a close?

A book by J. R.Meridith and S. J. Mantel Jr highlight four platforms on which a project can be approved for closure. According to the authors a project can be closed on the basis of extinction, addition, integration or starvation. The project closure phase consists of all activities that must be performed to officially finish and present the final deliverables to the customers. The project closure is as important if not more important than all other phases but in most cases people become more relaxed, unperturbed and tend to disregard this phase. Before announcing the closure of a project it is important that the project has achieved the objectives and deliverables as described in the business case. To initiate the closure of the project, a project outstanding list must be created for the items still yet to be completed. For each item listed there should be a proposed line of action to be taken as quickly as possible. The project manager must then ensure that all financial matters pertaining to the project are finalized and all supplier contracts are terminated. However, if any surplus funds should still remain then it should be used in the closing out phase or then it should be returned to the appropriate sponsors. The next thing inline to do is to prepare a final project report that would give a vivid explanation on the entire project and highlight any key success or failure factors, this final report should also include a criterion for completing the project. As part of the processes a questionnaire must be given out to allow constructive criticisms to be made about the project after which it would be collated and analyzed. It is the responsibility of the project team to ensure that all project documents and deliverables are collected and saved in the project network drive in case of future reference. Communicate the closure of the project to all stakeholders and gain their approval for closure before advancing. (Mastering project management, 2009) http://www.mastering-project-management.com/project-closure.html

In reviewing the project completion, a post-implementation review must be undertaken to review the entire project and identify any lessons learnt. This review assesses the success of the project and how the project faired in relation to its original plans and how it conformed to the various management processes. Another purpose of the post-implementation review is to make suggestions for future projects so as to boost their chances of success. A lesson learnt questionnaire must be sent out to all stakeholders and they must all reach an agreement that the proposed lessons learnt are genuine and applicable to all. Finally all these steps must be followed and included in the final report for approval. (J. Westland)

Reasons for project failures; the need for project management software

A project is said to have failed if the project was unable to deliver the results and quality that was being expected by both the customer and stakeholders. The project manager is charged with the responsibility of ensuring that the project stays on the right track and that nothing goes wrong. It is also expected that in the light of any unpredictable events the manager should be fully geared to solve the problem at hand and to reduce the impact the problem would have on the project. The success or failure of a project depends on the expertise of the project manager and his team but in most cases the burden of project failure falls on the project manager. (T. Carlos, 2012) http://www.projectsmart.co.uk/reasons-why-projects-fail.html

There are infinite reasons or causes of project failure but an article written by Michelle Symonds brings to light fifteen causes of project failures:

Poorly defined project scope.

Inadequate risk management.

Failure to identify key assumptions.

Project managers who lack experience and training.

No use of formal methods and strategies.

Lack of effective communication at all levels.

Key staff leaving the project and/or company.

Poor management of expectations.

Ineffective leadership.

Lack of detailed documentation.

Failure to track requirements.

Failure to track progress.

Lack of detail in the project plans.

Inaccurate time and effort estimates.

Cultural differences in global projects.

With these fifteen causes stated the author goes further to pinpoint the first three causes as the most common causes of project failures. According to M. Symonds (2011) it is possible to avoid unnecessary project failure by properly defining the project scope, properly creating a risk plan in order to be able to manage uncertainties as they arise. As the project progresses it is also vital to identify the key assumption at every stage of the project lifecycle in order to make well-informed decisions when the need arises. (M. Symonds, 2011) http://www.projectsmart.co.uk/15-causes-of-project-failure.html

Conclusively, the efficiency and effectiveness of project management can be enhanced through the use of project management software. These software aid the management team in simplifying the project process by means of easing the analyzing, planning and scheduling processes so as to ease out the entire management process. (Dwight Chestnut, 2013) http://www.ehow.com/facts_7246675_importance-project-management-software.html

There are a wide variety of project management software programs available on today’s market but basically every project calls for a particular project management software that would be useful throughout its lifespan. Nevertheless, ever project management software should be easy to use, user-friendly as pertaining to that particular project. The most valuable use of project management software is that it helps increase the effectiveness of team work, while also maintaining positive rapport between team members. (Info swings, 2011) http://www.infoswings.com/importance-of-project-management-software/