The Two Key Characteristics Of Traceability

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

Establish/implement monitoring systems for controlling CCPs.

e.g. set out a planned sequence of observations or measurements to assess the degree of control on identified CCPs.

Identify corrective actions when a deviation occurs at a CCP

Identify a predetermined action for when the CCP indicates a loss of control.

Verify that the HACCP system is working

Establish and apply methods to ensure that the HACCP system is working, including documentary evidence, e.g. auditing, end product testing, process validation.

Establish a documentation system for procedures and records

Develop and maintain procedures and practices for record keeping.

Temperature abuse and shelf life of chilled and frozen foods.

"Temperature control within chilled foods is most important from a food safety perspective" [1] . Abuse of temperature is likely to lead to increased occurrence and growth of pathogenic bacteria.

It should be noted that chilled foods are easily temperature abused in comparison with frozen foods as the temperature of the former can rise quickly. The ice in the latter 'protects' them in safety terms and from quality loss for brief periods at less-than-ideal temperatures. Awareness of the need for temperature control at all stages in the chill chain and for a low initial bacteria count (e.g. less than 103 per gram) is of paramount importance to all involved with the handling of chilled foods – including the consumer.

In addition, temperature control also preserves both sensory and nutritional qualities, e.g. vitamin C losses in vegetables can be up to 10% per day when stored at a temperature of 2oC; however, vitamin C loss can increase to over 50% per day when stored at temperatures of +20oC.

The loss of quality occurs within the frozen food, e.g. freezer burn, discoloration, mechanical damage, but in many cases the loss of quality is not noticeable until after thawing and cooking. Most of the mechanisms of quality loss are determined by storage temperature and are accelerated with time spent above the recommended value. They are also promoted by temperature fluctuations.

Ice and water can damage food materials in many ways, including:

Unfrozen water. Even below –18oC, up to 10% water can be unfrozen and take part in physical and biochemical reactions.

Freezing damage – the expansion of water as it turns to ice can cause structural damage to the food. This is often the cause of large voids and excessive drip loss in frozen materials after thawing. The effect can be minimized by freezing rapidly and maintaining low and consistent temperatures during frozen storage.

‘Ostwald ripening’ – this is the tendency for large ice crystals to grow at the expense of smaller ice crystals. The effect is to induce freezing damage. It can be minimized by maintaining low and consistent storage temperatures.

Accretion – the joining together of two adjacent ice crystals, leading to increased ice crystal size and freezing damage. Again, it can be minimized by maintaining low and consistent storage temperatures.

Vapor migration – this is most apparent on the surface of frozen foods as the increase of the ice on the interior of packaging and on food surfaces. If unchecked, this can guide to freezer burn and related changes in the color and the texture. It is caused by temperature gradients between the surface and centre of the product and can be minimized by maintaining low and consistent storage temperatures.

Solute concentration and osmotic dehydration – during ice formation, the concentration of solutes in the unfrozen water increases, leading to inconsistency throughout the product and damage to the cell membranes. Also water and solutes can leach out of cellular structures, causing internal damage. These effects can be minimized by low storage temperatures.

The role of food packaging in the cold chain

"Packaging plays a key role in protecting the product from contamination by external sources and from damage during its passage from the food producer to the consumer" [2] . The choice of packaging is dictated primarily by economic, technical and legislative factors. Also, a well-designed and consumer-appealing package will help to portray an image of high quality and responsible food production to the consumer.

Package barrier properties protect the food from ingress of gas, light, and water vapor, each of which can result in deterioration of colors, oxidation of lipids and unsaturated fats, denaturation of proteins and a general loss of characteristic sensory qualities. Similarly, barrier properties protect against the loss of moisture from the food to the external environment thereby eliminating dehydration and weight loss.

A wide range of materials is used for food packaging, including plastic, metals and paper/card. Plastic packages can provide a wide variety of properties, depending on the requirements of the food material and the cost of the package.

Package material

Relative permeability

Oxygen

Water vapour

Aluminium

<50 (barrier)

<10 (barrier)

Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVOH)

<50 (barrier)

variable

Polycarbonate (PC)

200-5000 (medium barrier)

100-200 (high)

Polyester (PET)

50-200 (semi-barrier)

10-30 (semi-barrier)

Polyethylene (PE)

 

 

High density (HDPE)

200-5000 (medium barrier)

<10 (barrier)

Low density (LDPE)

5000-10000 (high)

10-30 (semi-barrier)

Polypropylene (PP)

200-5000 (medium barrier)

10-30 (semi-barrier)

Table 3: Relative oxygen and water vapor permeability of some food packaging materials

Table 4 shows some comparisons of barrier properties for a range of common package materials.

As a means of further enhancing material properties, laminates can provide a combination of ‘ideal’ package properties. However, it is generally true that improved package properties incur increased costs. Board and paper packages are often laminated with synthetic plastics to improve barrier properties.

Additional requirements are that the food package should be both physically and chemically stable over the required temperature range (which may extend from freezer temperatures to oven temperatures), be compatible with common packaging/filling machinery, and provide ‘consumer appeal’. A key requirement is that the package also needs to comply with environmental directives, the essential requirements of which are:

Packaging must be minimal subject to safety, hygiene and acceptance for the packed product and for the consumer

Noxious or hazardous substances in packaging must be minimized in emissions, ash or leachate from incineration or land-fill

Packaging must be recoverable through at least one of the following: material recycling; incineration with energy recovery; composting or biodegradation

Packaging may be reusable

Traceability in the supply chain:

Introduction:

The frequency of product recalls has been increasing over the past decade.

Towards improving the product quality and ensuring the food safety and sustaining a competitive advantage; many food producers are switching to ‘supply chain traceability’. The ability the trace the origin, movement, and destination of products along the supply chain have been associated with improvements in operational performance, inventory optimization, product quality, and food safety.

Furthermore, comparatively little attention has been given to which Supply Chain Management (SCM) strategies and management practices can help managers to successfully trace the origin within the food industry.

The traceability is an environmental or ethical issue within the supply chain. Food industries try to show to their customer that the products that are selling are manufactured in factories with safe working conditions, by employees that earn a reasonable wage, using techniques that do not affect the environment.

What is traceability?

Concept definition and implications

"From an etymological standpoint "traceability" is related to the word "trace" which, figuratively, means a "mark left by an event". "To trace" can also mean "to indicate the path to be followed" or "to draw contours". Use of the word "traceability" to describe the process of identifying the origin of a product and reconstructing its movements from production to distribution is fairly recent" [3] .

The two key characteristics of traceability:

It is intentional: recording the identifications is the result of a system organized in order to ensure the consistent of collecting and recording of identifications.

It has several uses: for tracking the history, locating entities and finding operations. These uses define the organization of the identification system.

Track and trace

"Traceability seeks to achieve two different and complementary goals. It therefore implies at least two different concepts: Traceability of the logistics of products and Traceability of the contents of products" [4] .

Traceability of a product's logistics: the ability to find a product in a defined space and time. Tracking meets operational goals: physical tracking of an entity through to its final destination or the end of its life cycle. It can be used in the event of product withdrawal or recall if there is a threat to health.

Traceability of a product's contents: the ability to provide all information about the life of a product; tracing to know the uses or composition of a food. Tracing is qualitative. It is used to find the cause of a quality problem, to verify the conformity of the stated characteristics of a product or the product's itinerary. It works backward from the point-of-sale to the manufacturer.

Traceability directions

Traceability can be used bi-directionally: downstream and upstream.

Descending traceability (downstream): makes it possible to find the destination of a product within each step of the product life cycle. The data collected must allow it possible to follow the chain from upstream to the finished product.

Ascending traceability (upstream): makes it possible to find the history and the origin of the production and packaging of a product at every step of the product life cycle. The collected data must allow following the chain upstream from product to raw materials. The ascending traceability helps to observe clearly results and to find the causes.

Figure 3: traceability in the food supply chain

(Source): Training manuals, COLEACP PIP [5] Programme, Bruno Schiffers, October 2011,chapter 2,page 10.

The purposes and objectives of traceability

The purposes of traceability

The traceability of activities is "the ability to ensure the tracking, if possible in real time, of activities and of information flows linking activities" [6] .

The basic principle consists in linking information flows to the physical flows and activities of a given process [7] . Accordingly the traceability has two purposes: Safety and Implementation.

- Safety: to ensure the conformity of product with rules and requirements.

- Implementation: to monitor operations or chains and the successful completion of industrial, logistics and administrative sequences.

The main purposes and benefits of traceability

"A traceability system must meet many objectives: Regulatory compliance, Greater efficiency of processes, Communication with suppliers and customers, Commercial benefits, financial benefits" [8] .

The Traceability must allow the above objectives to be available at each level of the process in order to follow the flow of production (Raw materials, foodstuffs, their ingredients and packaging. From the agri-foods standpoint, a traceability system is a system that ensures that suppliers and the batches of raw materials used to manufacture each lot of finished product are known).then for identifying the required documentation that allow to track every operation and follow every production transport, packaging, processing, storage and shipping step. Moreover to ensure adequate coordination between the various players involved. Finally to ensure that everyone involved knows at least their direct suppliers and customers.

The information and transparency objective

"The public authorities have an information and transparency obligation to consumers. Although food has never been as safe as it is now and although risks really are lower than in the past, incidents are possible despite the many measures taken. Management procedures must be implemented for non-compliant products, notably procedures for recalls, withdrawals and notification of the authorities" [9] . If compulsory, it should be likely for the public authorities to activate an alert system in the event this will be not done by the company or organization involved and legally responsible for bringing the products to market.

The ethical objective: traceability and sustainable development

The objective is to monitor the use of natural resources and take into account product life cycles as well as to monitor the circulation and use of hazardous products in order to guarantee the quality and composition of products. Traceability is therefore doubly interesting within the framework of sustainable development. A traceability system is based on the analysis of the life cycle of a product. Traceability and sustainable development are very closely linked. Traceability is an indispensable lever for sustainable development.

Food traceability

The "food safety" approach

"Food-related health threats can occur at any step of the agri-food chain. It is therefore essential that appropriate controls and communication be implemented throughout the process. A weak link can compromise the safety of food products" [10] . This is a serious threat to consumers and is costly for suppliers. Therefore, the food safety is the joint responsibility of all involved in the agri-foods industry.

A traceability system must make it possible to find the product history. In fact, it's necessary to have an organized recording system in order to find products (lot or product unit) along the entire product life cycle to be able to withdraw and/or recall them if needed. Moreover, having the whole history of production and facilitating the transparency between every link in the chain. Furthermore, communicate relevant information on the making of products and on their specific characteristics to the authorities, customers and commercial partners. In addition, find and store information about a given product/process and determine the respective responsibilities in the event of a problem.

Organized traceability makes it possible to record the entire history of a product in writing and/or to locate it at every step and operation of animal feed or foodstuffs manufacturing, processing, distribution and maintenance from primary production through consumption. It facilitates identification of the causes of non-conformity and enables withdrawal and/or recall of the non-conforming product.

Traceability requirements.

The International Organiza tion for Standardization (ISO)

"The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has developed the ISO22000:2005 Food Safety Management Systems Standard – titled ISO 22000, Food safety management systems - Requirements for any organization in the food chain" [11] . ISO22000 install all requirements related to food safety management system covering all stages in the food chain from farm to fork, including food service and packaging manufacturers.

"The aim of ISO 22000 is to provide a harmonized basic framework for food safety standards across national borders. It utilizes HACCP principles to outline methods for controlling food safety hazards and brings together many of the other key elements in an effective food safety management system" [12] . ISO 22000 is the first in the food safety standards, which includes also the following, see Table 6:

Standard numbers

TITLES

ISO/TS22002-1:2009

Prerequisite programs on food safety - Part 1 Food manufacturing

ISO/TS22003-1:2007

Food safety management systems for bodies providing

audit and certification of food safety management systems.

ISO/TS 22004-2005

Food safety management systems - Guidance on the application of ISO 2000:2005.

ISO/TS 22005-2007

Traceability in the feed and food chain - General principles and basic requirements for system design and implementation.

Table 4: Related Standards to ISO22000

(Source) Author’s analysis Business Insights Ltd,Page 52

Although ISO 22000 has been known as a valuable contribution to management of food safety standards, concerns have been expressed that the ISO 22000 is more suitable to be applied for larger businesses then SMEs.

Traceability tools:

There are two types of traceability tools which are paper documents and electronic media.

Paper documents

Traceability systems based on paper documents can be used in companies in which the number of "documents" and "recording sheets" is limited.

This solution, which offers the advantages of low-cost, ease of implementation and ease of use by employees, can be sufficiently effective to allow a company to inform its customers that it has a traceability system for products.

However, data collection must be uniform and objective. The preparation of recording forms is very important same as the training of the operators who will be required to collect data.

Paper documents can be tied be attached to the product (label, packaging) or followed the product (traveler, delivery slip and invoice).

They normally exist as forms to be filled out by an operator. They are generally record cards, logs, record sheets and data collection cards. Their size must be optimized to collect as much useful data as possible.

There are several steps to creating a data collection form:

Selecting the data to be collected.

Designing the record form.

Determination of the data collection period, frequency and place.

Identification of the person recording the data or of the manager responsible for supervising data collection.

In large companies, paper media is often difficult to manage given the large number of sheets that must be kept for a long period of time A combined system is used in many companies: paper forms are used first then the information is entered into the computer.

Electronic media

The advantage of using a computer system for managing traceability is that it solves paper problems. A computer system provides:

Easier management of records while reducing concerns about storage time

Immediate storage of data within the company

Linking of workstations with the same data accessible to all operators due to the centralization of data.

Reduced reaction time for the creation of data reports on a given.

"The effectiveness of this system increases when it is coupled with an identification system like "barcoding" or "RFID". Use of these identification systems replaces manual data entry on the computer and eliminates typing errors" [13] .

Barcodes

"Using barcodes enables producers to identify every unit in a production batch. It also enables retailers to manage their inventory better. There are several types of barcodes. The main ones are: Code 39, Interleaved 2 of 5, MONARCH (CODABAR), Code 11, Code 93, Code 128, Code 49, Code PDF417, Code 1 and EAN" [14] .

Figure 4: Barcode

The labeling with the above code can be done in different ways by using ink jet, laser or thermal printing. The code is read with an optical device such as a pencil, laser gun scanner, etc.

There are two types of barcodes: Internal barcodes and External Barcodes.

Internal barcodes: code created by a company for internal use only.

External barcodes: The code consists of 13 digits representing a national identifier, a manufacturer and product code and a control key. This system makes it possible to identify each unit in a lot from manufacturing through distribution.

Radio frequency or smart labels:

"RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) is based on the principle that any object can be equipped with lightweight chips (tags, transponders or microchips) that provide information readable from a short distance using small portable readers. The information is contained in the marker and can be used to track inventory or trace products. This is a contactless labeling and reading technology" [15] . The system is not widely used in the fruits and vegetables sector.

Moreover smart label applications are not widely used in the foods industry since this application is very expensive and has a low added value.

A RFID system consists of three parts:

A tag which manages:1-Physical aspects of exchanges.2-Logical management of exchanges.3- Data storage.

Reader which ensures communication with the tag:1-Data encoding and decoding, verification, storage and transmission.2-Management of communication with the tag. 3-Data transmission management.

The reader can be either fixed or mobile. Antennas can be internal or external, depending on the application.

Information exchange in a RFID system takes place as follows:1-The reader transmits a radio signal at a given frequency to tags in its read zone.2-The signal provides the tags with the energy needed to respond.3-The "activated" tags send a signal to the reader to establish a dialogue using a predefined communication protocol.

The information system (IS):

"Manages the functions and processes that either act on the data exchanged with the tag, or use them" [16] .

Databases

It allow to manage the information. It is a tool for managing data with a specific subject and particular purpose.

"A database management system is an optimized and secure physical and logical file storage tool which provides access to saved information: these data are accessible from remote work stations" [17] .

The data stored in the database can be queried: detailed information about an entity with a code can be found in the database to which the code refers. Databases must include: data search interfaces, alert interfaces.

Traceability software:

There are many software packages available and it isn't always easy to appreciate their relevance and effectiveness. The cost of user licenses can also be relatively high, as can keeping software up-to-date.

"A computerized traceability system is simply a data recording system. It enables effective structuring and filing of data and the quick production of reports that would be more difficult to create using a manual system. As with a manual system, great care must be paid to the procedures implemented to ensure effective and safe use of the software" [18] .

Procedures can vary from one company to another but it should also be remembered that if a manual traceability system is already in place, and the system is operational and used effectively, the computerized system will work the same way and should be modeled on the manual system. If a manual system isn't used, or is poorly used, the computer system will not solve any problems. In the best case, installing a software application will underscore the need to be able to produce traceability sheets and will give rise to advice on the implementation of procedures.

Product labeling

Product labeling and traceability

Labeling is a pre-requisite for traceability. However, "labeling" doesn't mean "tracing".

Putting a mark on a product facilitates its identification and contributes to the reliability and systematization of traceability, be it tracing or tracking.

On the other hand, while traceability implies several companies along the industrial and logistics chain, the mark will only be useful if it can be used by the other companies involved: this is why it is necessary to use "marks" or "codes" that are legible and usable by all operators in a chain.

Labeling must:

Be done with a system other companies can use

Refer to code that is comprehensible by these companies (standards). Reading and not understanding a label is of little use

Be suited to the purpose and visible: an inaccessible or hidden label is useless.

Labeling products implies pre-definition of the relevant labeling level. Labeling at the unit level can be useless (and, therefore, be a useless cost) if labeling lots or logistics units is sufficient.

The answer will depend on the use made of the product downstream and on the identification needs that arise during its life cycle.

Data carried by products

The information carried by an entity is isolated traceability data which are, therefore, incomplete and of little interest in themselves.

Traceability data can be categorized as:

Information (best by date, etc.)

Legal information on packaging

Labeling formats (e.g.: EAN 128, a widely used product identifier4)

The following is used when tracing at the unit level:

A product identifier

A unit serial number

The following is present when tracing at the group level (product lot):

A product identifier

A lot number (logistics lot or production lot) that can be expressed several different ways:

- Incremental sequential number (including the SSCC or Serial Shipping Container

Code5 for the logistics unit)

- Time chart information (date and time).

Identification information must always be in plain text and visible.

Labeling requirements for product safety

In compliance with the Codex Alimentarius standard6, each package must, at a minimum, have the following information printed on the same side, in legible, indelible characters visible from the outside:

Identification

Exporter, packager and/or shipper (and national registration number)

Lot number

Type of product

Product name, if contents are not visible from the outside

Name of the variety or commercial type (if required)

Product origin

Country of origin and, optionally, the region of production or national, regional or local appellation

Commercial characteristics:

Category.

Caliber (reference letter or weight scale).

Number of units (optional).

Net weight (optional).

Official inspection stamp (optional).

Benefits of coding for traceability

In order to obtain useful traceability information, data on product locations, movements, operations carried out, contextual data, etc. must be recorded. However, to trace, the exact product being traced must be known. Items must be named and specifically identifiable to collect, organize and use information about them.

An unequivocal relationship between the item traced (identified) and the information (recorded about it) underlies all traceability.

Identification consists in retrieving information about the entity, at specific times in its movement though the production, packaging and sales processes. It combines five elements: an object (the entity), a location, a point in time, a context and an operation.

It provides information for a precise time and location but doesn't provide the history of operations carried out before that moment or indicate what will happen afterwards. Identification is only meaningful when it is connected to others, not in isolation: it isn't the collection of information that matters but its organization for the purpose of meeting predefined objectives.

As soon as processes become complex, or there are many entities, it is preferable to use a coding system to identify them. A system should provide the following benefits:

Reduced subjectivity: fewer errors or interpretations.

Linking of entities (relational or sequential hierarchy trees).

Increased automation.

Disconnection of entities from operations and the changes that affect it. Coding doesn't mean description: it means naming the entity to be able to identify it precisely.

The format of the "name" can have meaning but the meaning is not descriptive.

The code has no meaning in itself: it is an identification number that can be built using a given set of coding rules (coding structure). Coding enables the naming of objects with greater or less precision. The actual information about the coded product is found in the database, to which the code refers.

Coding, like labeling, is a pre-requisite for traceability, but isn't sufficient to meet regulatory and business requirements.

Why use standards?

Traceability can be carried out internally in a reliable, relevant and effective way. However, companies rarely use traceability in isolation because of their relationships with their suppliers and customers.

If every company in a chain applied its own identification rules, every point of contact between two companies would become a source of difficulty (e.g.: traceability breakdown) because of differences in coding. Ensuring continuity of traceability in the chain would require significant effort because of the necessity of connecting the codes used by each link:

By re-coding products at their entry into the next company which requires adding a new label (with a new code)

Or by ensuring that there is a match between the coding systems used thanks to concordance tables.

These relationships call for the use of the shared rules provided by "standards".

The role of standards is to provide common rules to those involved in an industrial chain or sector to facilitate information exchange and interactions.

Traceability, by its nature, encourages the use of standards because it overflows from companies both upstream and downstream. Inventing rules is a waste of time: at some point or another, it will be necessary to provide consistency with a standard. A typical example is the EAN code which is used to identify everyday consumer products. This code is placed by the manufacturer and is readable by all of the shops in which the product is sold.

The use of standards has four benefits:

Standards are the common language of an industry: using them strengthens sector integration and, over time, provides the means to enter into a relationship with other sector partners.

Standards are created through consultation and are related to good practices. Using those results in greater expertise.

Standards are designed to cover all possibilities. Using standards increases reliability.

Most solutions and tools available conform with standards. Using them leads to time and resource savings.

Standards exist in all sectors and can be of several types.

For example:

GS1/EAN UCC for fast moving consumer goods8

GLN (Global Location Number): identifies destinations

SSCC (Serial Shipping Container Code): identifies packages

GTIN (Global Trade Item Number): identifies products

CIP 13: identifies medicines

Galia: identifies cars

All of these codes are structured in a similar way:

- A prefix variable by situation

- A company identifier usually assigned by a national standards body

- A specific identifier (location, product, package, etc.) assigned by the company

- A control key to ensure code integrity and correct reading.

What are the obstacles to and limits of traceability?

Technical limits

Traceability can only find items that have been previously defined and recorded in a crisis situation, the information communicated by an operator may not be fully authenticated. It may also be difficult to reconstruct the progress of information from one step to the next, particularly at break points between upstream points (raw materials) and processing or downstream at the wholesale stage when products are repackaged or heterogeneous batches are created.

Weak implementation can make the system unworkable. The absence of certain useful data (not recorded during the production or packaging steps), loss of data (destruction of media) or information entry errors can lead to the non-recall of a contaminated lot. This is an important point because the loss or breakdown of traceability will negatively impact the effectiveness and speed with which corrective actions can be implemented (withdrawal or recall of products).

If they suspect that the information is unreliable, importers may require the implementation authentication mechanisms by third parties.

In this case, traceability obligations could penalize companies competing with foreign companies that are not subject to the same audit and inspection requirements, unless greater consumer confidence in the products compensates for the potentially higher resulting price.

Traceability is not a tool for managing product characteristics:

Traceability does not guarantee the healthiness of foods and, consequently, should only be implemented as a complement to a food safety management system that applies risk analysis and prevention concepts throughout the production chain.

The weakest link in product traceability occurs upstream:

The weakness of this link is primarily due to the raw materials supply method when it is tied to one of the following situations:

Small farm size, which means a limited supply of products deliverable at one time, or only over a limited time period and, consequently, a diversity of lots.

Poor organization of producers and producer associations.

Some operators buy products from local markets or from unplanned cropping. This also leads to a diversity of lots from unknown sources.

Use by some processing and packaging units of supplies from intermediaries that are often numerous and sometimes difficult to identify. This results in a range of quality levels from different sources.

A low level of upstream-downstream integration and a lack of contractual relationships between producers and processors.

Production methods can limit traceability They can also be a constraint on the implementation of traceability. For example, in pickle processing during which brine has to be added several times to maintain conditions favorable for ripening.

Economic and commercial limitations

These, like technical limitations, are tied to the intrinsic conditions of the chains and the products which affect their profitability.

In client-supplier relations, information exchange between partners must be designed to ensure that business relationships remain balanced: both must accept that certain data cannot be exchanged, notably when they are related to manufacturing processes

There must be an ongoing concern to maintain a balance between useful transparency and the confidentiality of information of each entity in the chain.

Selecting a traceability system must take into account, on one hand, the relationship between the goal pursued and the effectiveness sought and, on the other, the cost of implementation compared to the specific margin of the product. It is the result of arbitration between the different requirements and, in particular, customer or consumer demands, technical feasibility and economic acceptability.

The selection of a traceability system must therefore take into consideration, on one hand, the relationship between the goal pursued and the effectiveness sought and, on the other, the cost of implementation compared to the product's specific margin. The result is an optimal equilibrium between different requirements and, in particular, the demands of customers and consumers, technical feasibility and economic acceptability.

What is Recall?

"A "recall" is defined by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a company’s removal or correction of a marketed product that FDA considers to be in violation of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.

According to the FDA recalls are classified as follows:

Class 1: There is a reasonable probability that the use of or exposure to the violative product will cause serious adverse health consequences or death to humans or animals.

Class 2: There is a reasonable probability that the use of or exposure to the violative product may cause temporary or medically reversible adverse health consequences or where the probability of serious adverse health consequences is remote.

Class 3: Use of or exposure to the violative product is not likely to cause adverse health consequences" [19] .

Planning for a recall:

"An effective recall often requires the cooperation of most functions within a company if there is a need to investigate the cause, identify the affected product, track where the product was shipped, stored and/or sold, arrange for its retrieval or destruction, issue credits, and ship replacement products" [20] . There is also a communications with government, the media and customers. Moreover, a special account should be opened to track the expenses for insurance claims and future planning.

Recall team:

The company should have a Recall Team, including staff from key functions that may be involved in a recall, and should name alternates in the event of sickness, business travel or vacation of a regular Recall Team member. The Recall Team should be headed by a Recall Coordinator. A list with 24-hour contact information, including for legal counsel, should be distributed to all members of the Recall Team.

The Recall Team is responsible for implementing and updating the "Recall Plan", which contains procedures for assessing the safety of the products, investigating the cause of problems, determining the health implications of problems, tracking distribution, and retrieving or destroying product.

Other Planning Steps:

Companies should establish an efficient tracking system that will permit a quick identification of the affected product. Unless a company has records sufficient to justify limiting the scope of a recall.

Pilot Recalls:

It is recommended that pilot recalls be conducted on a regular basis, with the frequency decided in part on turnover in the company, to ensure that all functions know their roles in a recall and how to implement the steps efficiently. Following a pilot recall, the company should evaluate its performance and, if necessary, modify the policies and procedures to address any concerns.

2.4.14: Types of frozen food industries.

Hypermarket:

Hypermarket is a superstore combining a department and a store supermarket. The result is a retail facility carrying different range of products, including general merchandise and full groceries lines. Hypermarkets permit to their customers to satisfy all their shopping needs in one trip. Hypermarkets have business models emphasizing on low-margin sales, high-volume. They generally have more than 200,000 different brands of merchandise available at any time. Many hypermarkets are easily accessible by vehicle.

Supermarket:

Is a self service shop and it’s considered larger than the grocery stores.

The supermarket contain different areas: dairy, meat, baked goods aisles, fresh produce, along with shelf space reserved for packaged goods and canned as well as for various non-food items such as pharmacy products, pet supplies and household cleaners.

The supermarket occupies are large. It is usually located in a residential area in order to be convenient to consumers. The basic appeal is the availability of goods at low prices. Supermarkets are supplied by the distribution centers. Supermarkets they reduce their economic margins in order to offer products at good price. For making profit, supermarkets try to make up for the lower margins by a higher overall volume of sales.

Chain stores:

"Are retail outlets that share a brand and central management, and usually have standardized business methods and practices. These characteristics also apply to chain restaurants and some service-oriented chain businesses" [21] . In retail, dining and many service categories, chain businesses have come to dominate the market in many parts of the world. A franchise retail establishment is one form of chain store.

Restaurant chains:

A restaurant chain is a set of related restaurants with the same name in many different locations that are either under shared corporate ownership (e.g., Burger Kings in the U.S) or franchising agreements. Typically, the restaurants within a chain are built to a standard format (through architectural prototype development) and offer a standard menu. Fast food restaurants are the most common, but sit-down restaurant chains. Restaurant chains are often found near highways, shopping malls and tourist areas.

Foodservice Distributor:

A company that provides food products to restaurants, cafeterias and caterers; A food service distributor functions as an intermediary between food manufacturers and the food service operator.Often a food manufacturer may hire a food service brokerage company to represent the manufacturer in a local market. The broker helps the food manufacturer market its products through the foodservice distribution system, which ranges from getting items stocked at the distributor to working with operators to purchase items from the distributor.

To conclude this chapter we explained in the first part the term refrigerated food and its types, in the second part we explained about the supply chain management and how we can manage an effective cold chain management. In the third part we explained about the traceability management and their role in the frozen food industries as well as giving a brief idea about the recall strategy. Finally we described the types of frozen food industries.

Chapter 3: PROCEDURES AND METHODOLOGY

Food traceability within frozen food industries.

Frozen food industries:

In our research we conducted 4 companies that are classified into 3 categories asfigure.5:

Chain Restaurant:

King Food

Distributor:

C-Food

Retailer/Wholesaler:

Spinneys

TSC Sultan

Food Industries

Figure 5: Categories of food industries

Spinneys :

""Spinneys" was first formed in Alexandria, Egypt in 1924 by Arthur Rawdon Spinney, an officer in the British army, who identified a need for imported food products. By 1939 Spinneys supplied food to more than 20,000 people in Iraq and during World War II the company catered to all the Allied Forces in North Africa

Today the Spinneys Group Limited is a premium supermarket retailer in the Middle East, and operates hypermarkets and supermarkets in Qatar, Lebanon, Egypt, Jordan and UAE" [22] .

PWC Logistics (Agility), the leading provider of comprehensive supply chain solutions in the Middle East they signed with Spinneys a third party-logistics agreement (3PL) services agreement for providing warehousing and distribution services for their retail stores that are located in multiple locations throughout greater Beirut, Tripoli and Sidon, for a period of fourteen years.

The total value of the contract will depend on the volume of products handled by PWC for Spinneys.

By outsourcing their logistics, Spinneys will both lower their supply chain costs and be able to focus more closely on sales and marketing, their core competencies

In the case of this supermarket chain, we will focus on the cold chain and how "Spinneys" treat the frozen food and what are the strategies used in case of any problem.

TSC Sultan [23] :

The Sultan Center Food Products Co. KSC (known as The Sultan Center or TSC) is Kuwait’s largest independent retailer and a leading supplier of supermarket items, perishables, and general merchandise which currently runs 55 stores in nine countries in the Middle East.

TSC’s operations also encompass convenience stores, restaurants and catering, trading, fashion, telecommunications, security and investments. It also operates successful retail stores and restaurants in Oman, Jordan and Bahrain and Lebanon.

The Sultan Center made a major Lebanese acquisition in July 2008 by acquiring one of the biggest supermarkets in Lebanon "Geant Casino" and "Monoprix" for an amount of $ 97M and right now he is operating under different retail chains to cater to all customers’ needs:

Six TSC Plus Centers opened in Achrafieh, Verdun, Jnah, Zouk, Baabda and Hamra where high quality products, exclusive imported assortment, freshness and unprecedented services are available for clientele to Experience the Difference; and one TSC Mega Market in CityMall Dora providing everything under one roof at Always Great Value on each and every shopping trip.

In April 2010, a new shopping concept emerged with the birth of TSC Signature, a refined store in the historical Beirut Souks offering gourmet and premium imported goods as well as basic shopping needs and local merchandise;and embracing hubs serving authentic international cuisines for fine food lovers.

Additional TSC outlets are expected to open in the near future to strengthen the retail company presence in the country and expand its client base.

TSC maintains its own warehousing facilities with state-of-the-industry management system.Each ambient-controlled warehouse facility spans more than 35,000 square meters and accommodates more than 25,000 products. Sophisticated radio frequency equipment allows for scanning directly into the POS system for greater accuracy and efficiency. This enables the company to receive and process approximately 140 containers per month via air, ocean and land.

Treatment of the frozen food throughout the cold chain in the Lebanese grocery stores:

According to the questionnaire survey that is mentioned in the Appendix B, that was conducted to "Sultan TSC" and "Spinneys" as well as the interview survey mentioned in the Appendix A we concluded the following:

"Sultan TSC" and "Spinneys" adopted the same supply chain management as well as a similar cold chain process.

Therefore, we will explain about the frozen process throughout the cold chain in both companies and the benefits from the implementation of traceability system in the supply chain.

"The cold chain extends from the raw material supplier through to the consumers’ refrigerator/freezer, and all the steps in between" [24] .

The cold chain for both Frozen and chilled products is almost the same; both they must reached the same transfer points by respecting the temperature and the high levels of hygiene at all stages for both.

The only difference is the range of temperature that chilled and frozen food must rigidly maintain.

For the chilled food the range of temperature is between [0oC and +5oC].

For the frozen food the range of temperature is between [-15 oC and -18oC]

Accordingly, you can refer to the sequence of events within the cold chain in "Spinneys" and "Sultan TSC" that is illustrated in the Figure 5.

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Figure 6. "Sultan TSC" and "Spinneys" cold chain cycle.

Step 1: Raw material:

A success cold chain start from the quality of the product, low quality of raw material can affect the whole cycle even if the company is respecting all procedures.

Therefore "Spinneys and "TSC sultan are dealing with the top quality suppliers all over the world for making sure that at the end they are delivery to their customer a high quality of products.

Step 2: manufacture and chilling/Freezing:

Manufacturer to preserve a high quality of foods they must chill or freeze products quickly and adequately after the preparation.

Step 3: Packaging:

After goods being manufactured, suppliers must packing the goods since both Spinneys and TSC sultan they agreed with their supplier to handle this important issue. Packaging plays an important role for keeping safe the product from contamination and from damage during the supply chain from manufacturer up to end users. The choice of packaging is dictated by the economic, the technical and the legislative factors. Moreover a good designed and consumer-appealing package will help to show an image of high quality to the consumer.

Step 4: cold Store:

After goods being packed at supplier’s warehouse they are transferred into the cold store stores ready to be transferred in the next step into the holding stores.

"The cold store is an enclosed chamber or box made of insulated walls, ceiling and floor and fitted with an insulated door. It is kept at a preset temperature by refrigeration machinery" [25] .

Step 5: Transportation:

Goods will be transported by vehicles to another point named the holding stores.

"The vehicle must be provided with a good refrigerated system that remains operating at all times during transportation to keep the product temperature at the required values. During use it is important to keep doors closed, otherwise large quantities of warm air will enter the cold area" [26] .

Step 6: Holding Stores:

Packed goods are transferred to the holding store where supplier/customer arrange the pick-up. It depends on the agreed delivery terms between supplier and "Spinneys/TSC sultan.

However in most cases the delivery terms is on CIF basis which means that the supplier is responsible on delivering goods up to Beirut Port in good conditions without any damage and if it happened, supplier will support charges.

Step7: Transportation

Goods will be loaded into refrigerated containers (Reefers.) in order to ship them by sea up to Beirut port.

Refrigerated container or reefers are insulated, are specially designed to allow temperature controlled air circulation maintained by an attached and independent refrigeration plant.

Step8: Distribution Center:

"Spinneys" and "TSC sultan" they handle the clearance and customs procedure and clear out the goods for sending them to their warehouses into refrigerated trucks.

Step9: Transportation:

Goods will be transported later on from warehouses up to their branches across all Lebanon.

Step 10: Retail Outlet:

Goods are ordered and requested based on the consumption and are stocked in the showroom within a certain temperature condition.

Step11: Consumer handling and regeneration:

Refrigerated foods handled by consumer for ordering new products.

Stocks should be rotated to ensure that the products are sold on a "First in-First out" basis (FIFO).

Traceability system in the grocery stores:

Traceability of orders:

Purchase Requisition (PR#)

Purchase Order (PO#)

Minimum and maximum through the ERP system

Order Confirmation. (OC#)

Invoice,(INV#)

Shipping documents AWB# or Container#

Store receipt Voucher (SRV#)

Store Issuing Voucher (SIV#)

Figure 7: Traceability of orders

As first step a Purchase requisition (PR) will be issued by using the ERP system for frozen food items containing a specific number, this number must be traceable.

The requester that issue the PR must take many factors, the yearly consumption and the minimum and maximum quantity in the warehouse that are calculated based on the FIFO method.

After getting the confirmation, the purchase requisition PR will be transferred into Purchase Order (PO) with a new reference number; based on this number they track the order from production till receiving them to the warehouse.

Upon receiving the order by the supplier, they must sent to their customer the order confirmation, that means that they are confirming the Purchase Order.

In the order confirmation as well as all shipping documents the PO number must be mentioned clearing for tracking purposes.

The updated status is added to the order at each stage in the ERP system used in order to be informed the requester about the real status and the estimated arrival date for the requested item.

Upon goods are ready for shipment, supplier must sent to his customer the shipping documents that must container the following:

1-Original Invoice 2- Original Packing List 3-Bill of Lading 4- Certificate of Origin 5- food safety test 6- EUR1 document if they are shipping goods from a European Country.

Starting from this stage, we can track our order based on the received Bill of Lading (B/L) that contain the following information: B/L number and Container number.

The above information are very important, we can access the website related to the liner, each liner or shipping company have a system tracking system which can provide to their customer a real idea about the status of their order, they only need to do is to add the container number or B/L number into this tracking system.

Upon arrival of good to port Beirut, the original shipping documents will be submitted to the clearance agent in order to clear out the goods and deliver them to the nominated warehouses and a store receipt voucher must be issued.

After retrieving goods from the warehouse an issuing voucher must be submitted along with the goods.

Upon the quantity reach the minimum, directly the system request another requisition.

Traceability for the frozen food.

"To preserve quality and safety in frozen foods, temperature requirements exist for each major stage of the cold chain" [27] .

Accordingly we will explain in the following parts:

How the grocery stores are implementing the traceability system? What tools are using in order to monitor their goods through the cold chain?

Transfer Points:

Particular attention is paid to the transfer of frozen foods, which should be done as soon as possible of the warehouse to vehicle / container, the guard-room, the furniture sale. Often, a transfer of responsibility occurs at the same time as the transfer of frozen foods. It is important to note that:

- Frozen foods are not left to the temperature and humidity for a long period of time. It is recommended to use a temperature controlled area for any external handling of quick frozen foods.

- Procedures are in place for dispatching loads or for immediate storage as soon as they arrived, so as to limit their exposure to moisture, heat and other adverse conditions.

- Ensure that staff adopt such procedures.

- The temperature of frozen foods that are receied or sent are monitored and records of these are kept as long as necessary on legal and business plans.

- Operations such as setting cartons, assembly, palletizing are made in the cold store or in a temperature-controlled area.

C-Food :

History [28] :

The company is a part of the group "The son of Chafik Halawani," which is a Lebanese company. The leading product of C-Food International is "Siblou", that was basically a Lebanese idea that contain a wide variety of products. Established in 1996, "Siblou" was dedicated to providing consumers with a variety range of seafood focusing on the quality ant the best service.

"Siblou" challenges: they are working with a delicate product such as seafood that is considered as success since they are continuously providing to their customers an excellent quality and they are also focusing on the product development and customer satisfaction by providing a large variety of seafood in order to meet the demand of all their consumers despite the difference in the culture or habits.

With extensive experience and researches, Siblou could establish standards and specifications for purchasing and a quality control (QC), which ensures the procurement of fresh products from regions well known for seafood.

The sub-group's brands:

C-Food owns several sub brands and products such as:

"Greens", "Lili Green" for frozen vegetables and fruits.

"Seafood" for shrimp and all kinds of fish.

"Adriana" for products exported from Vietnam and China.

Suppliers of C-Food:

C-Food Company has a international chain of suppliers from the 5 continents, as well was agencies around the world for which they are under their direct supervision for placing orders and taking care of the logistics process.

C-Food Company has a team of distributors in Vietnam, China, India and Poland.

Some countries with which C-food works :

Belgium: for potatoes (fried) frozen artichokes, broccoli.

Egypt: for frozen strawberries.

Turkey and Jordan : for potatoes, chicken and shrimp.

Germany: for fish sticks and burgers.

Brazil: with the company "Sadia" which is the second famous brand in the world.

China for squid and crabs.

India, Vietnam and the Arab countries for shrimp.

Vietnam and Thailand for tuna.

Morocco for sardines.

Packaging and Labeling:

Before shipping the goods from the foreign countries, supplier takes in charge the packaging and labeling. For example, for the chain of Supermarket "Spinneys" in Lebanon, certain criteria must the supplier followed such as specific labels, brand name; all these details must be agreed before placing any order.

Whatever the delivery terms is, the packing must always be made in the country of origin before arranging for the shipment.

"Siblou" products have a specific barcode with a serial number. These numbers are assigned to differentiate the product as well as the brand.

Samples:

European standards are monitored by the company (EU approval code) which is the European Committee for inspection. Then before any contract between suppliers and customers, several samples and pictures are taken of the goods indicating the expiry date of these products. These samples are analyzed by the committee to deduct if they are conforming to the prerequisite standards.

Afterwards, the control is carried out on the quality of these samples to approve the loading while checking the "booking containers" and the "loading report".

Transport:

Through its agencies, C-Food works with international shipping lines as:

CMA, Maesrk, Hapag Lloyd, Hamburg Sud.

Orders for goods are made in several countries (as we talked about various products from European countries). The role of "freight forwarder" is here to gather the containers of goods in one country. For example, the combined shipment between Belgium, Germany and France is made in one country by land transport.

The goods are placed in a cold store (for example: Kuhlhauss in Germany, Daalimpex in Belgium). Finally, the goods are grouped in a single container, transported by sea into refrigerated containers to their final destination: Lebanon.

Traceability of containers is done through the sites of logistics companies whether indicating the bill of lading number or the container number that are already provided by the liner.

The tracking system mainly shows the following information:

The routing taken by vessel, the vessel name, the container number and the quantity of container the ETD( Estimated Time of Delivery) from the port of loading, ETA(estimated arrival date) to the final destination.

Upon the arrival of containers at the port of Beirut, the company works with Mr. Hasan Jaroudi, their authorized clearance customs agent at the customs authority clear out the goods up their cold storage area located in Beirut.

Kindly note that there are special treatments from the Lebanese customs for the refrigerated containers as:

Giving a priority to clear out the goods since products are refrigerated and spending more time in the customs might affect them.

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