The Purposes And Objectives Of Traceability

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

The purposes of traceability

The traceability of activities is "the ability to ensure the tracking, if possible in real time, of activities and of information flows linking activities.

The basic principle consists in linking information flows to the physical flows and

activities of a given process.

Traceability has two complementary purposes:

- Safety: to ensure product conformity with rules and requirements. The purpose is to prevent excesses and anomalies, to understand them, to deter any irrational use of inputs, to deter theft, hijackings and counterfeiting, to monitor behaviour and practices, to ensure compliance with the cold chain, etc.

- Implementation: to monitor operations or chains and the successful completion of industrial, logistics and administrative sequences.

The main purposes and benefits of traceability

A traceability system must meet many objectives:

Regulatory compliance

Greater efficiency of processes

Communication with suppliers and customers

Commercial benefits

Financial benefits (e.g.: reduction of inputs used and theft).

Traceability must enable those involved at every level of the process and the chain:

To follow the flow of production: Raw materials (animal feed, raw materials, inputs used), foodstuffs, their ingredients and packaging. From the agri-foods standpoint, a traceability system is a system that ensures that suppliers and the batches of raw materials used to manufacture each lot of finished product are known.

To identify the documentation required to be able to track every operation and follow every production, transport, packaging, processing, storage and shipping step

To ensure adequate coordination between the various players involved (small producers, "merchants", transporters, exporters, etc.)

To ensure that everyone involved knows, at a minimum, their direct suppliers and customers and more if possible.

The information and transparency objective

The public authorities have an information and transparency obligation to consumers.

Although food has never been as safe as it is now and although risks really are lower than in the past, incidents are possible despite the many measures taken. Management procedures must be implemented for non-compliant products, notably procedures for recalls, withdrawals and notification of the authorities. If required, it should be possible for the public authorities to activate an alert system in the event this isn't done by the company or organization involved and legally responsible for bringing the products to market.

1.3.6.1. The ethical objective: traceability and sustainable development

We now have an obligation to, on one hand, monitor the use of natural resources and take into account product life cycles and, on the other, to monitor the circulation and use of hazardous products in order to guarantee the quality and composition of products. Traceability is therefore doubly interesting within the framework of sustainable development. A traceability system is based on the analysis of a product's life cycle.

Traceability and sustainable development are very closely linked. Traceability is an indispensable lever for sustainable development.

1.3.7 Food traceability

1.3.7.1. The "food safety" approach

Food-related health threats can occur at any step of the agri-food chain. It is therefore essential that appropriate controls and communication be implemented throughout the process. A weak link can compromise the safety of food products. This can be a serious threat to consumers and can have costly repercussions for suppliers. Food safety is, therefore, the joint responsibility of all involved in the agri-foods industry. Consumers demand food safety. Following crises such as the so-called "mad cow" episode, the need has become even more acute and regulations have been strengthened.

A traceability system must make it possible to reliably find products and product history. In fact, in the event of a problem, it's necessary to have an organized recording system in place to:

Find products (lot or product unit) along the entire product life cycle to be able to withdraw and/or recall them if needed.

Have the most complete manufacturing history possible for the product.

Facilitate transparency between every link in a chain.

Communicate relevant information on the making of products and on their specific characteristics to the authorities, customers and commercial partners.

Find and store information about a given product/process and determine the respective responsibilities in the event of a problem.

Organized traceability ("a traceability system") makes it possible to record the entire history of a product in writing and/or to locate it at every step and operation of animal feed or foodstuffs manufacturing, processing, distribution and maintenance from primary production through consumption. We now speak of traceability from "plough to plate". It facilitates identification of the causes of non-conformity and, if need be, enables withdrawal and/or recall of the non-conforming product.

1.3.7.2. Traceability requirements.

1.3.7.2.3 International and national standards

Several international organizations have published traceability standards. The most important standards are those of ISO and Codex Alimentarius.

The ISO 22000 standard

The ISO 22000:2005 standard describes the requirements of a Food Safety Management System that can be certified to demonstrate its ability to manage identified dangers.

The goal is to harmonize practices globally, to promote mutual recognition of certificates between countries and to guarantee the on-going supply of safe products that meet both requirements agreed to with customers and regulations. This international standard takes into account the documents developed by Codex Alimentarius on HACCP and is compatible with ISO 9001:2000. It has been in place since September 2005.

The standard recognizes that food product safety can only be guaranteed through the combined efforts of all those involved in the food chain:

Farmers

Animal feed producers

Foodstuff manufacturers

Transport and warehousing operators and sub-contractors

Wholesalers, retailers, food services and restaurant operators

Packaging equipment and materials manufacturers

Cleaning products, additives and ingredients manufacturers.

Phytosanitary products, biocides, fertilizers and veterinarian medicines producers

Service providers.

The ISO 22000 standard is based on the "Deming wheel" principle and its PDCA (Plan,

Do, Check, Act) continuous improvement loop which is now recognized as a simple and universal managerial behavior principle.

The standard, which can be used as the basis for certification, requires that companies set up a traceability system in addition to PRP (Pre-Requisite Programmes) and

HACCP.13 With ISO 22000, the ISO standardisation system built a health safety management system that integrates traceability: the standard emphasises the importance of communication between the company and its customers, suppliers and employees to identify and manage all relevant dangers related to food security throughout the entire food chain.

ISO 22000:2005 is the first standard of a family that includes ISO 22005, Traceability in the feed and food chain – General principles and basic requirements for system design and implementation.

1.3.7.2.3. Codex standards

Codex Alimentarius published a General Standard for the Labelling of Pre-packaged Foods (STAN 1-1985) and a series of Official Codex Standards (STAN) on the quality and conformity of fruits and vegetables.

These product standards provide additional information on product descriptions, product composition and quality, authorised food additives, contaminants, hygiene, weights and measures (calibres), labeling rules - in accordance with the Codex General Standard for the Labelling of Pre-packaged Foods – and on monitoring analysis and sampling methods.

1.3.8. Traceability tools:

For operators, selecting traceability media means the freedom to choose the system best-suited to the specificities of the chain, to product production and distribution methods and to the company’s volume of activity (there is an obligation to obtain results, but also a degree of freedom in terms of the methods used).

Paper documents

Traceability systems based on paper documents and manual transmission of information can be used in companies/organisations in which the number of "documents" and "recording sheets" is limited.

This solution, which offers the advantages of low-cost, ease of implementation and ease of use by employees, can be sufficiently effective to allow a company to tell its customers that it has a traceability system for its operations and products.

However, to be truly effective, data collection must be uniform and objective. The preparation of recording forms is of utmost importance as is the training of the operators who will be required to collect data.

Paper documents can:

Be tied to the product (label, packaging)

Physically follow the product (traveler, delivery slip, invoice).

The documents must both be written and validated by the various people responsible (Station Manager, Quality Manager, Production Manager, Warehouse Manager, Purchasing Manager, etc.).

They normally exist as forms to be filled out by an operator (see the recording Annexe for samples). They are generally record cards, logs, record sheets and data collection cards. Their size must be optimised to collect as much useful data as possible.

There are several steps to creating a data collection form:

1. Selecting the data to be collected (type of data: measurements, observations, etc.). The importance of a good definition of "useful recording" (usable) should not be underestimated.

2. Designing the record form (data collection sheet). This form is usually a table. It is

designed to enable systematic recording of data using numbers (e.g.: temperature in °C), ratings (e.g.: good), dates (of the operation) or symbols (code).

3. Determination of the data collection period, frequency and place.

4. Identification of the person recording the data (e.g.: operator) or of the manager responsible for supervising data collection (e.g.: Production Manager, who signs the form).

In large companies, paper media is often difficult to manage given the large number of sheets that must be kept for a long period of time (at least, for the life cycle of the product). A combined system is used in many companies: paper forms are used first then the information is entered into the computer (with a risk of error during this operation).

Electronic media

The advantage of using a computer system for managing traceability is that it solves paper problems. A computer system provides:

Easier management of records while reducing concerns about storage time

Immediate storage of data within the company

Linking of workstations with the same data (e.g.: lot numbers) accessible to all operators involved thanks to data centralisation

Reduced reaction time for the creation of data reports on a given lot (e.g.: to respond to an importer or a public authority in the event of a problem).

The effectiveness of this system increases when it is coupled with an identification system like "barcoding" or "RFID". Use of these identification systems replaces manual data entry on the computer and eliminates typing errors.

However, it should be pointed out that this isn't a miracle solution and that a computerised system is only effective if paper traceability is already well organized and operational!

Computerizing traceability requires qualified staff and will be more expensive (purchase of computer equipment and user licenses, employee training).

Barcodes

Using barcodes enables producers to identify every unit in a production batch. It also enables retailers to manage their inventory better. There are several types of barcodes. The main ones are: Code 39, Interleaved 2 of 5, MONARCH (CODABAR), Code 11, Code 93, Code 128, Code 49, Code PDF417, Code 1 and EAN. This information coding system uses as succession of bars and spaces of different widths. Their juxtaposition represents numeric or alphanumeric data.

Labelling with this code can be done several different ways using ink jet, laser or thermal printing. The code is read with an optical device such as a pencil, laser gun scanner, etc.

There are two types of barcodes:

Internal barcodes: code created by a company for internal use only.

External barcodes: usually of the GENCOD type. This consists of a number code and a symbology using bars: called Gencod EAN (European Article Numbering (article code)), an international code standard that includes several standards of which EAN 13 is the most widely used. The code consists of 13 digits representing a national identifier, a manufacturer and product code and a control key. This system makes it possible to identify each unit in a lot from manufacturing through distribution.

Radio frequency or smart labels

RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) is based on the principle that any object can be equipped with lightweight chips (tags, transponders2 or microchips) that provide information readable from a short distance using small portable readers. The information is contained in the marker and can be used to track inventory or trace products. This is a contactless labeling and reading technology. The system is still not very widely used in the fruits and vegetables sector.

Smart label applications are not widely used in the agri-foods industry. This is primarily due to the cost for products with low added value like most agri-foods products, including fresh fruits and vegetables.

A RFID system consists of three parts:

1) A tag which manages:

Physical aspects of exchanges (frequency, transfer speed, modulation, etc).

Logical management of exchanges (protocol).

Data storage.

Tags can be packaged in a number of formats (cards, tags, tokens, capsules, labels, etc.). There are two types of tags, also called "smart labels":

Read-only (passive): they contain recorded data entered by the manufacturer which cannot be changed or added to. These labels (most common) are woken up by electromagnetic induction (the radio wave sent by the reader) and return an agreed-to signal at short distance. Data life is estimated at 10 years and 100,000 write cycles.

Active tags: (more costly) are equipped with their own energy source (battery or solar panel) and a microchip. They can emit a signal alone and/or have a more complex dialogue with the reader. They have autonomy of several months to several years. Write-once/read-many labels contain information recorded by the first user which can be read but not changed or added to. On the other hand, write-many/read-many labels can be written several times, erased, changed, added to and read many times.

In all cases, RFID tags are characterized by:

Their small size (to 1 mm)

Their low cost (a few euro cents for the least expensive ones)

The presence of a relatively large antenna

The potential for update during use

2) An interrogator (or reader) which ensures communication with the tag:

Data encoding and decoding, verification, storage and transmission

Management of communication with the tag (activation, session initiation, read, write, authorisation, etc.)

Data transmission management (frequency, transfer speed, modulation, emission power, etc.).

The interrogator can be either fixed or mobile. Antennas can be internal or external, depending on the application.

Information exchange in a RFID system takes place as follows:

The interrogator transmits a radio signal at a given frequency to tags in its read zone

The signal provides the tags with the energy needed to respond

The "activated" tags send a signal to the reader to establish a dialogue using a predefined communication protocol.

3) The information system (IS):

Manages the functions and processes that either act on the data exchanged with the tag, or uses them.

Databases

A database provides a way to manage information. It is a tool for managing data about a specific subject or for a particular purpose (for example product traceability).

A database management system is an optimised and secure physical and logical file storage tool which provides access to saved information: these data are accessible from remote work stations.

The data stored in the database can be queried: detailed information about an entity with a code can be found in the database to which the code refers. Databases must include:

Data search interfaces

Alert interfaces.

The effectiveness of these systems depends on their overall design and the rigor with which they are used.

Traceability software

There are many software packages available and it isn't always easy to appreciate their relevance and effectiveness3. The cost of user licenses can also be relatively high, as can keeping software up-to-date.

A computerized traceability system is simply a data recording system. It enables effective structuring and filing of data and the quick production of reports that would be more difficult to create using a manual system (paper). As with a manual system, great care must be paid to the procedures implemented to ensure effective and safe use of the software.

Procedures can vary from one company to another but it should also be remembered that if a manual traceability system is already in place, and the system is operational and used effectively, the computerized system will work the same way and should be modeled on the manual system. If a manual system isn't used, or is poorly used, the computer system will not solve any problems. In the best case, installing a software application will underscore the need to be able to produce traceability sheets and will give rise to advice on the implementation of procedures.

Product labeling

1.3.8.3.1. Product labeling and traceability

Labeling is a pre-requisite for traceability. However, "labeling" doesn't mean "tracing".

Putting a mark on a product facilitates its identification and contributes to the reliability and systematization of traceability, be it tracing or tracking.

On the other hand, while traceability implies several companies along the industrial and logistics chain, the mark will only be useful if it can be used by the other companies involved: this is why it is necessary to use "marks" or "codes" that are legible and usable by all operators in a chain (see below).

Labeling must:

Be done with a system other companies can use

Refer to code that is comprehensible by these companies (standards). Reading and not understanding a label is of little use

Be suited to the purpose and visible: an inaccessible or hidden label is useless.

Labeling products implies pre-definition of the relevant labeling level. Labeling at the unit level can be useless (and, therefore, be a useless cost) if labeling lots or logistics units is sufficient.

The answer will depend on the use made of the product downstream and on the identification needs that arise during its life cycle.

1.3.8.2. Data carried by products

The information carried by an entity is isolated traceability data which are, therefore, incomplete and of little interest in themselves.

Traceability data can be categorized as:

Information (best by date, etc.)

Legal information on packaging

 Labeling formats (e.g.: EAN 128, a widely used product identifier4)

The following is used when tracing at the unit level:

A product identifier

A unit serial number

The following is present when tracing at the group level (product lot):

A product identifier

A lot number (logistics lot or production lot) that can be expressed several different ways:

- Incremental sequential number (including the SSCC or Serial Shipping Container

Code5 for the logistics unit)

- Time chart information (date and time).

Identification information must always be in plain text and visible.

1.3.8.3. Labeling requirements for product safety

In compliance with the Codex Alimentarius standard6, each package must, at a minimum, have the following information printed on the same side, in legible, indelible characters visible from the outside:

Identification

Exporter, packager and/or shipper (and national registration number)

Lot number

Type of product

Product name, if contents are not visible from the outside

Name of the variety or commercial type (if required)

Product origin

Country of origin and, optionally, the region of production or national, regional or local appellation

Commercial characteristics

Category

Caliber (reference letter or weight scale)

Number of units (optional)

Net weight (optional)

Official inspection stamp (optional)

1.3.8.4 Benefits of coding for traceability

In order to obtain useful traceability information, data on product locations, movements, operations carried out, contextual data, etc. must be recorded. However, to trace, the exact product being traced must be known. Items must be named and specifically identifiable to collect, organize and use information about them.

An unequivocal relationship between the item traced (identified) and the information (recorded about it) underlies all traceability.

Identification consists in retrieving information about the entity, at specific times in its movement though the production, packaging and sales processes. It combines five elements: an object (the entity), a location, a point in time, a context and an operation.

It provides information for a precise time and location but doesn't provide the history of operations carried out before that moment or indicate what will happen afterwards. An identification is only meaningful when it is connected to others, not in isolation: it isn't the collection of information that matters but its organization for the purpose of meeting predefined objectives.

As soon as processes become complex, or there are many entities, it is preferable to use a coding system to identify them. A system should provide the following benefits:

1. Reduced subjectivity: fewer errors or interpretations

2. Linking of entities (relational or sequential hierarchy trees)

3. Increased automation

4. Disconnection of entities from operations and the changes that affect it. Coding doesn't mean description: it means naming the entity to be able to identify it precisely.

The format of the "name" can have meaning but the meaning is not descriptive.

The code has no meaning in itself: it is an identification number that can be built using a given set of coding rules (coding structure). Coding enables the naming of objects with greater or less precision. The actual information about the coded product is found in the database, to which the code refers.

Coding, like labeling, is a pre-requisite for traceability, but isn't sufficient to meet regulatory and business requirements.

Why use standards?

Traceability can be carried out internally in a reliable, relevant and effective way. However, companies rarely use traceability in isolation because of their relationships with their suppliers and customers.

If every company in a chain applied its own identification rules, every point of contact between two companies would become a source of difficulty (e.g.: traceability breakdown) because of differences in coding. Ensuring continuity of traceability in the chain would require significant effort because of the necessity of connecting the codes used by each link:

By re-coding products at their entry into the next company which requires adding a new label (with a new code)

Or by ensuring that there is a match between the coding systems used thanks to concordance tables.

These relationships call for the use of the shared rules provided by "standards".

The role of standards is to provide common rules to those involved in an industrial chain or sector to facilitate information exchange and interactions.

Traceability, by its nature, encourages the use of standards because it overflows from companies both upstream and downstream. Inventing rules is a waste of time: at some point or another, it will be necessary to provide consistency with a standard. A typical example is the EAN code which is used to identify everyday consumer products. This code is placed by the manufacturer and is readable by all of the shops in which the product is sold.

The use of standards has four benefits:

1. Standards are the common language of an industry: using them strengthens sector integration and, over time, provides the means to enter into a relationship with other sector partners.

2. Standards are created through consultation and are related to good practices. Using them results in greater expertise.

3. Standards are designed to cover all possibilities. Using standards increases reliability.

4. Most solutions and tools available conform with standards. Using them leads to time and resource savings.

Standards exist in all sectors and can be of several types.

For example:

GS1/EAN UCC for fast moving consumer goods8

GLN (Global Location Number): identifies destinations

SSCC (Serial Shipping Container Code): identifies packages

GTIN (Global Trade Item Number): identifies products

(units sold to consumers)

CIP 13: identifies medicines

Galia: identifies cars

All of these codes are structured in a similar way:

- A prefix variable by situation

- A company identifier usually assigned by a national standards body

- A specific identifier (location, product, package, etc.) assigned by the company

- A control key to ensure code integrity and correct reading.

1.3.9. What are the obstacles to and limits of traceability?

1.3.9.1. Technical limits

Traceability can only find items that have been previously defined and

Recorded

In a crisis situation, the information communicated by an operator may not be fully authenticated. It may also be difficult to reconstruct the progress of information from one step to the next, particularly at break points between upstream points (raw materials) and processing or downstream at the wholesale stage when products are repackaged or heterogeneous batches are created.

Weak implementation can make the system unworkable. The absence of certain useful data (not recorded during the production or packaging steps), loss of data (destruction of media) or information entry errors can lead to the non-recall of a contaminated lot. This is an important point because the loss or breakdown of traceability will negatively impact the effectiveness and speed with which corrective actions can be implemented (withdrawal or recall of products).

If they suspect that the information is unreliable, importers may require the implementation authentication mechanisms by third parties (e.g.: traceability system audit or other procedures).

In this case, traceability obligations could penalize companies competing with foreign companies that are not subject to the same audit and inspection requirements, unless greater consumer confidence in the products compensates for the potentially higher resulting price (which is rarely the case in practice).

Traceability is not a tool for managing product characteristics

Traceability does not guarantee the healthiness of foods and, consequently, should only be implemented as a complement to a food safety management system that applies risk analysis and prevention concepts throughout the production chain.

The weakest link in product traceability occurs upstream

The weakness of this link is primarily due to the raw materials supply method when it is tied to one of the following situations:

Small farm size (small producers), which means a limited supply of products deliverable at one time, or only over a limited time period and, consequently, a diversity of lots7

Poor organization of producers and producer associations (the local market is not organized or regulated)

Some operators buy products from local markets or from unplanned cropping. This also leads to a diversity of lots from unknown sources

Use by some processing and packaging units of supplies from intermediaries that are often numerous and sometimes difficult to identify. This results in a range of quality levels from different sources8

A low level of upstream-downstream integration and a lack of contractual relationships between producers and processors (sale to the highest bidder at harvest time).

Production methods can limit traceability They can also be a constraint on the implementation of traceability. For example, in pickle processing during which brine has to be added several times to maintain conditions favourable for ripening. The result is an end-product containing several salt batch "parts" that are very difficult to track down!

1.3.9.2. Economic and commercial limitations

These, like technical limitations, are tied to the intrinsic conditions of the chains and the products which affect their profitability.

In client-supplier relations, information exchange between partners must be designed to ensure that business relationships remain balanced: both must accept that certain data cannot be exchanged, notably when they are related to manufacturing processes

(manufacturing secrets, "recipes"). There must be an ongoing concern to maintain a balance between useful transparency and the confidentiality of information of each entity in the chain.

Selecting a traceability system must take into account, on one hand, the relationship between the goal pursued and the effectiveness sought and, on the other, the cost of implementation compared to the specific margin of the product. It is the result of arbitration between the different requirements and, in particular, customer or consumer demands, technical feasibility and economic acceptability.

The selection of a traceability system must therefore take into consideration, on one

hand, the relationship between the goal pursued and the effectiveness sought and, on the other, the cost of implementation compared to the product's specific margin. The result is an optimal equilibrium between different requirements and, in particular, the demands of customers and consumers (the propensity of the consumer to pay to "know more"), technical feasibility and economic acceptability (agreement on the part of economic operators to invest to "gain the means to know more") (ONUDI, 2007).

1.3.10: Types of grocery stores in the food market.

Hypermarket:

In commerce, a hypermarket is a superstore combining a supermarket and a department store. The result is an expansive retail facility carrying a wide range of products under one roof, including full groceries lines and general merchandise. In theory, hypermarkets allow customers to satisfy all their routine shopping needs in one trip.

Hypermarkets, like other big-box stores, typically have business models focusing on high-volume, low-margin sales. A typical Wal-Mart Supercenter covers anywhere from 150,000 square feet (14,000 m2) to 235,000 square feet (21,800 m2) and a typical Carrefour covers 20,000 m² (210,000 square feet). They generally have more than 200,000 different brands of merchandise available at any one time. Because of their large footprints, many hypermarkets choose suburban or out-of-town locations that are easily accessible by automobile.

Supermarket:

A supermarket, a large form of the traditional grocery store, is a self-service shop offering a wide variety of food and household products, organized into aisles. It is larger in size and has a wider selection than a traditional grocery store, but is smaller and more limited in the range of merchandise than a hypermarket or big-box shop.

The supermarket typically comprises meat, fresh produce, dairy, and baked goods aisles, along with shelf space reserved for canned and packaged goods as well as for various non-food items such as household cleaners, pharmacy products and pet supplies. Most supermarkets also sell a variety of other household products that are consumed regularly, such as alcohol (where permitted), medicine, and clothes, and some stores sell a much wider range of non-food products.

The traditional supermarket occupies a large amount of floor space, usually on a single level. It is usually situated near a residential area in order to be convenient to consumers. The basic appeal is the availability of a broad selection of goods under a single roof, at relatively low prices. Other advantages include ease of parking and frequently the convenience of shopping hours that extend far into the evening or even 24 hours a day. Supermarkets usually allocate large budgets to advertising, typically through newspapers. They also present elaborate in-shop displays of products. The shops are usually part of corporate chains that own or control (sometimes by franchise) other supermarkets located nearby—even transnationally—thus increasing opportunities for economies of scale.

Supermarkets typically are supplied by the distribution centres of their parent companies, usually in the largest city in the area.

Supermarkets usually offer products at low prices by reducing their economic margins. Certain products (typically staple foods such as bread, milk and sugar) are occasionally sold as loss leaders, that is, with negative profit margins. To maintain a profit, supermarkets attempt to make up for the lower margins by a higher overall volume of sales, and with the sale of higher-margin items. Customers usually shop by placing their selected merchandise into shopping carts (trolleys) or baskets (self-service) and pay for the merchandise at the check-out. At present, many supermarket chains are attempting to further reduce labor costs by shifting to self-service check-out machines, where a single employee can oversee a group of four or five machines at once, assisting multiple customers at a time.

A larger full-service supermarket combined with a department store is sometimes known as a hypermarket. Other services offered at some supermarkets may include those of banks, cafés, childcare centres/creches, photo processing, video rentals, pharmacies and/or petrol stations.

Chain stores

are retail outlets that share a brand and central management, and usually have standardized business methods and practices. These characteristics also apply to chain restaurants and some service-oriented chain businesses. In retail, dining and many service categories, chain businesses have come to dominate the market in many parts of the world. A franchise retail establishment is one form of chain store.

The displacement of independent businesses by chains has generated controversy [who?] and sparked increased collaboration among independent businesses and communities to prevent chain proliferation. These efforts include community-based organizing through Independent Business Alliances (in the U.S. and Canada) and "buy local" campaigns. In the U.S., trade groups such as the American Booksellers Association and American Specialty Toy Retailers do national promotion and advocacy. NGOs like the New Rules Project and New Economics Foundation provide research and tools for pro-independent business education and policy while the American Independent Business Alliance provides direct assistance for community-level organizing.

Restaurant chains

A restaurant chain is a set of related restaurants with the same name in many different locations that are either under shared corporate ownership (e.g., Burger Kings in the U.S.) or franchising agreements. Typically, the restaurants within a chain are built to a standard format (through architectural prototype development) and offer a standard menu. Fast food restaurants are the most common, but sit-down restaurant chains (such as TimberLodge Steakhouse, Outback Steakhouse, T.G.I. Friday's, Ruby Tuesday, and Olive Garden) also exist. Restaurant chains are often found near highways, shopping malls and tourist areas.