The Mental Model And Information

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

Introduction

In this lesson, the mental model and information processing, two frameworks developed to gain a better understanding of the cognitive process within the user’s head are identified and discussed.

Learning Outcomes

Be familiar with the mental model framework

Be familiar with the information processing framework

Terminology

No

Word

Definition

1

6.1 Framework for Cognition

In order for interaction design and cognitive science to interwork together to produce interactive products that fully meet the user’s cognitive and physical needs and wants, a framework for cognition is constructed, comprising of mental models and information processing.

6.2 Mental Models

Kenneth Craik (1943) described mental models as "internal constructions of some aspect of the external world enabling predictions to be made". As users use an interactive product, they become expert users and develop knowledge of how to use the interactive product and some, develop knowledge of how the interactive product works. This knowledge is a mental model the user develops which helps him to predict what the outcome of his various interactions will be with the system. Developing a mental model of how to use an interactive product also develops a confidence and assumption within the user that he is able to use the system and if any problems or unexpected issues occur with the system he is able to overcome these. As well as difficulties faced by the user, unfamiliar territory which is unexplored by the user is explored with confidence and an ability to overcome any errors, issues or problems. Mental models develop and become stronger with every time a user interacts with the system; the higher the frequency of contact between the system and the user the deeper and stronger the mental model that is developed within the user. An example of this is the frequent usage of a computer builds a deep mental model of how to use the computer but a computer engineer will have a deep mental model for how to use the computer as well as how the computer works. Mental modeling engages conscious and unconscious processes which recall images and analogies that are stored in one’s brain. This is demonstrated in the following examples.

You return home with your six month old baby to a freezing house as the central heating has been switched off for the last two weeks. You need to get the house warm as quickly as possible as the coldness can damage the baby’s health. Do you turn the central heating’s temperature to the maximum or to the recommended average room temperature (23°C)?

What would you do? The house is cold and you have a baby? Most people when asked this question chose the option of setting the central heating to the maximum temperature. When asked why this option was chosen, they explained that the higher the temperature the quicker the house warms up. This analogy is however incorrect due to the speed of central heating warming up the house is unaffected by how high the temperature is set to. Central heating systems heat up a house by reaching the desired temperature and then switching off. Once the house temperature drops below this, the system switches on again to heat up the house again.

This incorrect analogy is used by most people in this scenario. Why is this? An explanation for the above scenario is that people view the central heating as a valve, the more they open the more they open the valve the more heating that will come out which will the result in the house warming up quicker. In other words, the central heating is viewed as a water tap, the more one opens it, the more water will come out and the quicker it is to fill up one’s glass. Due to people using this principle in their everyday life such as volume controls and water taps, they develop an idea of how things work and apply this way of thinking (mental model) to other systems that they come across, regardless of its correctness. The use of incorrect mental models to interact with interactive products is surprisingly a common thing that one sees every day. For example, one sees many people waiting to cross the road pressing the pedestrian buttons repeatedly in the hope of stopping the traffic quicker. This of course is not the case. The same applies to elevators, many people press the elevator button to call the elevator many time in the hope that it will make it arrive quicker. A computer freezing for a few seconds evokes a user frenzy of smashing the keyboard and constantly pressing the mouse. All of this does not solve the problem and in most cases makes the freezing worse but users still keep doing it. One’s TV freezes, a tendency to hit the top of the TV in the hope that this hitting will bring the channel back. Norman (1983) research has discovered that "people’s mental models of the way interactive devices work is poor, often being incomplete, easily confusable, based on inappropriate analogies and superstition".

Developing the correct mental model helps in interacting with a system in the correct and effective way. Also, if any difficulties are experienced, a user with a correct mental model has the ability to easily overcome this difficulty, unlike someone who has a poor mental model or no mental model at all. Research has been carried out to explore the ways in which users can develop better mental models. A solution is to educate the users by providing them with user manuals and instructions of how to use the interactive product. This, in theory is a good and effective way but in practical terms is has proved to be ineffective as the majority of people do not favor following manuals and instructions. Another way of developing effective and correct mental models is to make the interactive products as transparent as possible. By being transparent, the interactive product will provide the user with useful feedback in response to user input and also provide the user with a user friendly navigation system which makes it easier for the user to interact with the system. Also, the provision of the correct information at the right time is an essential way of improving transparency. Making system based instructions simple and easy to read (not too frequent instructions but not too little). Also, designers need to provide the user with an online manual and tutorials which research has shown that they are more popular than their paper based counterparts.

6.3 Information Processing

Another way of trying to create a framework for how the brain works is to imagine the human brain as an information processor. The information enters the brain (input), passes through different stages in the brain before existing (output) (see Figure 6.1). The various extent/level of the processes within the brain that take place depend on one’s knowledge and experience of the interactive product; the greater the prior knowledge of an interactive product, the greater the effect of the encoding, comparison, response selection and execution. This stored knowledge is stored in the memory and once the attention is placed on the various processes, the knowledge is recalled accordingly.

Encoding

Comparison

Response Selection

Response Execution

Input

Output

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Attention

Memory

Figure 6.1: Human Information Processing Model

Summary

In this lesson, the following has been discussed:

In this lesson, the mental model and information processing, two frameworks developed to gain a better understanding of the cognitive process within the user’s head are identified and discussed.

Exercises

Understanding the capabilities of the users is important to interactive product designers. (TRUE)

Cognition is "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". (TRUE)

Experiential cognition is used when one is thinking of ways to design a website. (FALSE)

Reflective cognition is used when one is driving a car. (FALSE)

Cognition processes comprise of the following: (TRUE)

Attention

Perception

Memory

Learning

Reading, speaking and listening

Problem solving, planning, reasoning, decision making

Kenneth Craik (1943) described mental models as "external constructions of some aspect of the internal world enabling predictions to be made". (FALSE)

Mental models are knowledge of how to use a system. (TRUE)

There re many incorrect mental models used by users. (TRUE)