The Introduction To Computer Architecture

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

What is computer architecture? Computer architecture in computer engineering is the conceptual design of a computer system and the basic structure of the business. It is on the way for the various parts of a computer, wherein the central processing unit (CPU) to perform internal and access in the memory address, blueprints and functional description focused primarily on the requirements and the design implementation. Computer architecture is the design of computer systems. Set all connected to the equipment and all software running on it above standard. It is based on the type of program to be run (commerce, science) and the number of programs running at the same time.

All the components in a computer-based space (how much) and time (fast). One example is the amount of memory a computer can access, it can access it how fast. Another is how fast data transfer speed between the channels (16, 32, etc.) of the CPU and memory, CPU and peripherals, the width between them.

Define Question 1

The five generation of computing. The history of computer development is often referred to in terms of five distinct eras, or "generations" of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices.

Answer Question 1

The First Generation: 1946-to-1955 (Vacuum Tube)

The first computer is use a vacuum tube circuit and magnetic drum memory, often huge, an entire room. A magnetic drum, brake drum, also referred to as the drum, and may be stored in on the data and programs in a magnetic iron oxide material are coated with a metal cylinder. The drum time using DAS primary storage device, but as a secondary storage devices, has been implemented.

Is assigned to the track on the drum located around the circumference of the drum channels, formed adjacent to the circular band around the blast. Single drum can have a maximum of 200 tracks. Deposit magnetized spots of up to 3,000 rpm, as the drum rotates at a speed, the device's read / write head on the drum, during the write operation and the read-out of these points during a read operation. This operation is similar to the tape or disk drive.

They are a very expensive operation, in addition to use a lot of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which is usually the reasons for the failure. Depends on the machine language of the first generation of computer, the computer understands the lowest-level programming language to perform operations; they can only solve a problem. Based on, punch cards and paper tape input, teleprompter output display.

The Second Generation: 1956-to-1963 (Transistor)

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor is a device of the signal amplification, or open or closed circuit semiconductor material. It becomes a key factor in the invention of the transistor in 1947 at Bell Labs, all digital circuits, including computers. So far, today's latest microprocessor contains millions of microscopic transistors.

Invented the transistor in 1947, but did not see widespread use in the computer, until the late 1950s. The transistor is far superior to the vacuum tube, so that computers become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Although the transistor is still generated a lot of heat, the computer is damaged, which is a huge improvement over the vacuum tube. The second generations of computers still rely on punched card input and output printouts.

The second-generation computers moved to cryptic binary machine language from symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.

The Third Generation: 1964-to-1970 (integrated circuit)

Third generation computer interaction, rather than punch cards and printouts, the memory of the user through the keyboard and display interface operating system, which allows the device to run many different applications at the same time, the central planning monitoring. Although by today's standards is still large, the third generation of computers than their predecessors smaller, cheaper, is currently being mass production (mainly by IBM) all over the world for commercial use.

A chip is a small piece of semi-conductive material (usually silicon) on the integrated circuit is embedded. Typical chip than ¼-- square inch less and can contain millions of electronic components (transistors). Computer by many chip called a printed circuit board placed on the electronic circuit board. There are different types of chips. For example, CPU chip (also referred to as a microprocessor) includes a complete processing unit, and the memory chip contains a blank memory.

The Fourth Generation: 1971-to-Present (microprocessor)

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of, the mouse and handheld devices, etc.

The Fifth Generation: Present-to-Beyond (Artificial Intelligence)

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

Compare the generation of computer

In the development of products, this generation is the improvement of the state. The term has also been used in the different advances in computer technology. With each new generation circuits become smaller, more advanced than the previous generation ago. The miniaturization of the results, the computer's speed, power, and memory are also increases in proportion. New discoveries are constantly being developed that affect our lives, work and play.

The first generation of computers (Vacuum Tube) is a huge, slow, expensive, and often unreliable. The vacuum tube is a very important step in the progress of the computer. Vacuum tube of the invention by Thomas Edison invented the light bulb and the bulb is very similar. Its purpose is to act like an amplifier and a switch. No moving parts, the tube can take a very weak signal, the signal stronger (zoom). , Vacuum can stop and start the flow of electricity instantaneously (switch). These two properties of the ENIAC computer possible.

The second generation of computer (Transistor) There is a significant difference between crystal and vacuum tube. The transistor is faster, more reliable, smaller, and much cheaper than the vacuum tube to establish. A transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes. These transistors are made ​​of a solid material, some of which is silicon, and found in beach sand and glass content abundant element (second only to oxygen). Therefore, their production costs are low. Transistor to generate electricity faster and better than vacuum tubes. They also smaller compared to the vacuum line, almost no heat. Their use marked a new beginning computer. Without this invention, a trip into space in 1960 will be impossible. However, a new invention, will be further promote the ability to use a computer.

The third generation of computer (Integrated Circuits) the transistor is a huge breakthrough in advancing the computer. But no one can predict may be compressed in such a small space, thousands or even millions of transistors (circuits). The integrated circuit, or as it is sometimes called as a semiconductor chip, packaged into a single silicon wafer is a huge number of transistors. (Robert Noyce), Robert Noyce, Fairchild Semiconductor, Texas Instruments (TI) and Jack Kilby independently discovered the amazing attributes of integrated circuits. Greatly increase the number of transistors on a single chip of such a large power of a computer, and its cost is greatly reduced.

The fourth generation of computer (Microprocessor) This generation may be characterized by two jump discharge to the monolithic integrated circuit (millions of transistors on an integrated circuit chip), and a microprocessor (of the present invention with a single chip, can be all of the processing of the full scale computer). By several million transistors into a single chip computing can be achieved through computer faster speed. Since the power to travel about one foots in the second, smaller distance computer speed, the greater the billionth one.

Define Question 2

Bus electrical system shared hardware, such as a cable or printed circuit board; this is the PC connection, in order to be able to easily and quickly communicate with each other.

It is in the architecture of the computer, which allows for the various devices of the communication bus included. For example, if more than one computer connected to a printer, a person can hit the printing and the use of bus printer speak. Bus systems help make traffic data easier and more direct.

Answer Question 2

Bus Interconnection:-

The bus is connected to the communication paths of the two or more devices. Is an important feature of a bus, which is a shared transmission medium? Multiple devices connected to the bus, and the signals transmitted by any one device are applicable to all the other devices connected to the bus receiver. If two devices transmit at the same time, the signal will be more than a lap, to become garbled. Therefore, at the same time, only one device can successfully transfer.

Typically, a bus consists of multiple communication pathways, or lines. Each line is capable of transmitting signals representing binary 1 and binary 0. Over time, a sequence of binary digit can be transmitted across a single line. Taken together, several lines of a bus can be used to transmit binary digits simultaneously. For example, an 8-bit unit of data can be transmitted over eight bus lines.

The computer system includes a number of different bus is provided between the components of the various levels of the hierarchy of the computer system of route. A bus, connected to the main computer components is known as the system bus. On the basis of the most common computer interconnect structure using one or more system bus.

Bus structure

A system bus consists, typically, of from about 50 to hundreds of separate lines. Each line is assigned a particular meaning or function. Although there are many different bus designs, on any bus the lines can be classified into three functional groups

Data Lines

The data lines provided a path for moving data between system modules. Of these production lines, collectively, are referred to as a data bus. A data bus may be made of from 30 to hundreds of individual line is called the number of rows of the data bus width. Because each line can carry only a time determined by the number of rows, and can transmit the number of bits. The data bus width, is to determine a critical factor in the overall system performance. For example, if the data bus is 8 bits wide, and each instruction is 16 bits long, then the processor must access the memory modules in each instruction cycle twice.

Address Lines

The address line is used to specify the source or destination of the data on the data bus. For example, if the processor hope (8, 16, 32 bits) of data read from the memory a word, on the desired word from the address of the address lines. Obviously, the width of the address bus is used to determine the maximum possible memory capacity of the system. In addition, generally also use the address lines to handle the I/O port. Under normal circumstances, the high order bit is used to select the module on a particular bus, and a lower-bit selector memory address or I / O port module.

Control Lines

The control line, used to control access to and use of the data and address lines. Since all of the components of the shared data and address lines, there must be a means to control its use. The control command and timing information in the signal transmission system between the modules. The validity of the timing signal is indicative of the data and address information. Command signals specify the operation to be performed. Typical control lines include:-

Memory write: Cause data on the bus to be written into the addressed location

Memory read: Cause data form the addressed location to be placed on the bus

I/O write: Cause data on the bus to be output to the addressed I/O port

I/O read: Cause data from the addressed I/O port to be placed on the bus

Transfer ACK: Indicated that data have been accepted from or placed on the bus

Bus request: Indicates that a module needs to gain control of the bus

Bus grant: Indicates that a requesting module has been granted control of the bus

Interrupt request: Indicates that an interrupt is pending

Interrupt ACK: Acknowledges that the pending interrupt has been recognized

Clock: Use to synchronize operation

Reset: Initializes all modules

Bus Architecture

Single Bus Structure

The following figure shows a typical example might be connected to the expansion bus of the I/O devices. The network connections include a local area network (LAN), such as a 10-Mbps Ethernet and to connect to the wide area network (WAN), such as a packet-switched network. SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) is a type of bus used to support the local disk drives and other peripherals. A serial port can be used to a printer or scanner.

Traditional bus architecture is reasonable and effective, but it began to break and higher performance in the I/O devices. In these growing needs of the industry to take a common approach is to build a high-speed bus with the rest of the system closely integrated, and only requires a bridge between the processor bus and high-speed bus. Such arrangement is sometimes called mezzanine architecture.

Multiple bus structure

The figure bellows this approach shows a typical implementation. Similarly, there is a local bus; the processor is connected to a cache memory controller, which is in turn connected to the main memory of the system bus supports. The cache memory controller is integrated into a bridge, or a buffer device, that is connected to the high-speed bus. The bus supports connection to a high-speed LAN, such as 100Mbps Fast Ethernet, video and graphics workstation controller, as well as local peripheral bus, including SCSI and FireWire interface controller. The latter is a high-speed bus arrangement, designed to support large-capacity I/O devices. Lower speed devices still support the expansion bus, and expansion bus interface buffer between the traffic flow between the expansion bus and high-speed bus interface buffer.

The advantage of this arrangement is that the high-speed bus brings high-demand devices into closer integration with the processor and at the same time is independent of the processor. Thus, differences in processor and high-speed bus speed and signal line definitions are tolerated. Changes in processor architecture do not affect the high-speed bus, and vice versa.

Bus transmission

Timing

Timing refers to the way in which events are coordinated on the bus. Buses use either synchronous timing or asynchronous timing.

Synchronous timing

With synchronous timing, the occurrence of events on the bus is determined by a clock. The bus includes a clock line upon which a clock transmit a regular seequence of alternating 1s and 0s equal duration. A single 1-0 transmission is referred to as a clock cycle or bus cycle and defines a time slot. All other devices on the bus can read the clock line, and all evnets start at the beginning of a clock cycle.

Figure below is a synchronous timing diagram. Other bus signals may change at the leading edge of the clock signal. Most event occupy a single clock cycle.

Asynchronous timing

With Asynchronous timing, an incident that occurred on the bus, and dependent on the occurrence of an event. Figure (a) in the simple example of a read out, the address of the place and the bus of said processor in a state signal. Suspend these signal stabilization, it issues a read command, indicating the presence of a valid address and control signals. The appropriate memory address is decoded, and the data placed on the data line by the response. Once the data line has stabilized, assertions acknoledge the line sgnal processor data memory module. A main line of the data formed by the data read out, which pulled the readout signal. This will lead to a decline the data and acknowledege line of memory modules. Finally, once confirmed line down, the main delete address information

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Figure below (b) shows a simple asynchronous write operation.in this case, the master places the data on the data line at the same time that is puts signals on the status and address lines. The memory module respond to the write command by copying the data from the data lines and then asserting the acknowledge line. The master then drops the write signal and the memory module drops the acknowledge signal

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Conclusion

In generally known as to as a history of development of the computer with reference a computing device different generations. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development, to fundamentally change the computer operation, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful, and more efficient and reliable equipment.

A several hardware devices can be shared by bus that is an electrical system, such as cables or printed circuits, which are connected so that the people on individual computers are able to easily and quickly connect with each other.

It is the inclusion of the bus in the computer's architecture which allows the various devices to communicate. For example, if multiple computers are attached to one printer, a person can hit print and use the bus to speak with the printer. The bus system helps to make the transportation of data easier and much more direct.