The Evolution Of Gsm Generations

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

Chapter 1

The highways are they most evidence of the progress and development of civilization and urban in any country ; so it was supposed to follow up and prosecution of this development and progress within mechanism of sophisticated technological progress in order to maintain these roads to be more safer, easier and guided better for users from problems that faced it.

Where, There are many fundamental problems faced the high way and the derivers constantly which we summarized in one problem:

Guidance

Guidance

Whole of the high way users need gaudiness to know the in use road details ,and the road situation before take if it trafficked and the can select which way is more trafficked than others, so there should be noted the road content like: Turns, Exits , Detours , ….etc. And on the other cases to inform users about any trouble, or defect in the movement of the road; instead of, make the movement of ambulances and police easier to be in time.

The main disadvantages of this problem:

Delayed Ambulance and police Vehicles from accident site

When the road is jam due to car accident and there is injured on the road making it impossible for ambulance to reach the injured in the right time, which lead to increase percentage of death.

Traffic jams

One of the most common and important problems, also the most widespread and comprehensive on the high ways, which have several causes:

Vehicles accidents, Vehicles crash …etc.

Wasting time

No one can enjoy with his time because traffic jam problems all that time waste.

Delayed Appointments

A lot of categories were affected by Traffic Jams, especially university students struggling to get to their lectures, and employees suffering to get to their jobs and causing the expulsion of employees from their work. Also People can’t know if there is a new road or detour or maintenance in the road and this Causing traffic jam too.

Effect on Tourism

When a tourist visits he wants to be able to move around without too many hindrances, so that he could explore those beautiful tourism sites that we have prepared for his pleasure. But when a journey of twenty minutes turns to two or three hours, then it left little or nothing to be desired by tourists and travelers. Incidentally it is situations like this that discourage tourists and fun seekers, it is what also discourage or stunt the growth of tourism

Proposed Solution Approaches

Many of the manufacturers and designers have worked either individually or jointly with the States as an act of production methods and devices available and readily available as a solution to the problems of roads, traffic congestion, which in turn singled out on these roads and vital places, and did not include highways.

These products have proven limited efficiency in solving the problems mentioned above, and its performance was commensurate with the growth and natural increase for road users, in turn not be enough to give instructions and guidance on automatically accurate and high performance. These devices were limited and mostly on the possibility of receiving data and SMS as LED Traffic Display Sign, Variable Message Signs, LED Traffic Speed Limit Screen…etc, and others made for specific jobs as Traffic Lights.

Relevance of Study

A Monitoring and Controlling The Highway Using Real Time Multimedia Message And Display Screen is the most suitable solvation and possible that we come with, that designed to fit with the requirements of the high ways roads to reduce the traffic jams and gives better guide for derivers.

Over builds up a control unit as server room to keep trailing and follow the traffic movement 24-hours per a day located on the highway, which in turn works by generating energy throughout solar Cells to ensure the efficiency of  it, and it is availability Under no circumstances . The server room job is controlling a combination of display Screens as display clients located on the high way through submit live stream of wireless cameras located on the high way and any need location on city to show drivers the situation of the high way also the main locations that we put wireless camera in, as well it is possible to transmit a real time multimedia message to this display clients whatever is text, image or video. This display screens get it's our energy also by using solar cells to ensure the efficiency of if it found in an uninhabited area .Also located on main cross points, turns, detours, exits. In addition, the possibility of display Commercials and advertising on, where it's another benefit of this project and considered as a monthly income source.

In this project we programed a software code by using Programming language which is the Microsoft visual studio program C# version 2010 in addition, to the power of windows embedded operating system to manage and guide the traffic as shown in the problem and its solution, and Solar Cells to get energy and this was explained in details at chapter 3.where we use any mobile network covers the high way area to transfer our camera live stream and our multimedia messages at real time through the wireless network via using wireless USB mode for any mobile company, where we discuss and explained the Mobile Telephone Technologies process in details at chapter 2. all worked through the Microprocessor which our programed software code set up in it is ROM to get high speed data transfer in GHz, where the Microprocessor Kits features work as well for more detailed at chapter 6, where the real time multimedia messages and the camera live stream both are displays on Outdoor Plasma Display Screens to get the HD resolution on the high way, different types of display screens was explained in details at chapter 5, and for make my Software first I used the Embedded windows 7 since it is easy to use, common, and more supported. Second we chose the Programming language C# since it is more advanced and supported this was explained in details at chapter 7.

This method of transmitting and receiving between the server room and the clients displays inside the mobile network internet is depends on the internet protocols and the TCP/IP protocol which considered in the software code to let both see each other with fixed IP for the server and dynamic IP's for the clients.

The device will work as a good traffic man but with not only two eyes to see what happen on his location and manage it but with also a lot of eyes in every position on the way to manage it.

Chapter 2

GSM & GPRS

The GSM system widely used mobile technology in use in the whole world now. It has been a successful mobile phone technology for a various reasons including the ability to roam through the world with the certainty of being able to operate on GSM network systems in exactly the same concept provided billing agreements are in place.

The abbreviation GSM originally used for the words Group Special Mobile, but as it became clear this mobile phone technology was being used worldwide the abbreviation of GSM become to Global System for Mobile Communications. Since 1991 when technology was employed, the use of GSM has rapid grown, and it is now widely used in mobile phone system in the world.

GSM History

The foundation for the GSM Standard was laid already in 1978, four years before the name GSM was established. In 1978 the CEPT reserved a frequency range round 900 MHz for mobile communications in Europe. The limits of analog mobile communications in Europe were recognizable in the early 80s. At that time the first analog cellular networks were just beginning their operation and were still far from their maximum capacity. Despite this a group of experts was formed to establish the longer-term challenges of mobile communications and to develop a new binding international standard for digital mobile communications in Europe. Thus the GSM Standard became undoubtedly one of the most successful European products of the past decades; its sphere of influence is extended far beyond the originally planned European scope.

The Europeans realized this early on, and in 1982 the CEPT (Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs) formed a study group known as GSM (Group Special Mobile) to study and develop a pan European public land mobile system. The proposed system had to satisfy a certain principle.

Good speech quality

Low terminal cost

Low service cost

Supporting international roaming

Support for new services

Supporting a new facilities

Ability to support handheld terminals

ISDN compatibility

Spectral efficiency

.

Table ‎2. Short History of Mobile Telephone Technologies

Evolution of GSM Generations

The 1st Generation

1G was an analog system, and was developed in the seventies, 1G had two major improvements, this was the invention of the microprocessor, and the digital transform of the control link between the phone and the cell site. 1G analog system for mobile communications saw two key improvements during the 1970s: the invention of the microprocessor and the digitization of the control link between the mobile phone and the cell site. Advance mobile phone system (AMPS) was first launched by the US and is a 1G mobile system. Based on FDMA, it allows users to make voice calls in 1 country.

The 2nd Generation

Phones using global system for mobile communications (GSM) were first used in the early 1990s in Europe. GSM provides voice and limited data services, and uses digital modulation for improved audio quality. Multiple digital systems. The development of 2G cellular systems was driven by the need to improve transmission quality, system capacity, and coverage Speech transmission still dominates the airways, but the demand for fax, short message, and data transmission is growing rapidly. 2G cellular systems include GSM, digital AMPS (D-AMPS), code-division multiple access (CDMA), and personal digital communication (PDC).

Table ‎2. Topology of 2nd Generation

The 2.5G Generation

The 2.5G include tow cellular technologies was the step between the second-generation GSM cellular technologies and the 3G W-CDMA / UMTS system.

GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) 

GPRS became the first stepping-stone on the path between the second-generation GSM cellular technology and the 3G W-CDMA / UMTS system. With GPRS technology offering data services with data rates up to a maximum of 172 kbps, facilities such as web browsing and other services requiring data transfer became possible. Although some data could be transferred using GSM, the rate was too slow for real

data applications.

Packet based Data Network

Well suited for non-real time internet usage including retrieval of email, faxes and asymmetric web browsing.

Supports multi user network sharing of individual radio channels and time slots.

Provides packet network on dedicated GSM radio channels.

GPRS overlays a packet-switched architecture on existing GSM

network architecture.

Variable performance

Packet Random Access, Packet Switched.

Content handling.

Throughput depends on coding scheme, timeslots, etc.

From ~ 9 kbps min to max. of 171.8 kbps (in theory).

Modulation – GMSK

Symbol Rate - 270 ksym/s

Modulation bit rate - 270 kbps

Radio data rate per time slot - 22.8kbps

User data rate (8 time slots) - 160kbps, 182.4kbps

Applications are required to provide their own error correction scheme as part of carried data payload.

GPRS provides data rates of 56-114 kb/s [4].

EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution)

EDGE is an evolution to the GSM mobile cellular phone system. The name EDGE stands for Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution and it enables data to be sent over a GSM TDMA system at speeds up to 384 kbps. In some instances GSM EDGE evolution systems may also be known as EGPRS, or Enhanced General Packet Radio Service systems. Although strictly speaking a "2.5G" system, the GSM EDGE cellular technology is capable of providing data rates that is a distinct increase on those that could be supported by GPRS.

EDGE Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution

EDGE is add-on to GPRS.

Uses 8-PSK modulation in good conditions.

Increase throughput by 3x (8-PSK - 3 bits/symbol vs. GMSK 1 bit/symbol).

Offer data rates of 384kbps, theoretically up to 473.6kbps.

Uses 9 Modulation coding schemes (MCS1-9).

MCS (1-4) uses GMSK, while MCS (5-9) uses 8PSK modulation.

Uses Link adaptation algorithm.

Modulation Bit rate - 810kbps.

Radio data rate per time slot - 69.2kbps.

User data rate per time slot - 59.2kbps (MCS9).

User data rate (8 time slots) - 473.6kbps.

New handsets / terminal equipment; additional hardware in the BTS, Core network and the rest remains the same.

EDGE access develops to connect to 3G core [3].

Table ‎2. Topology of 2.5 Generation

The 3rd Generation

Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is the European standard for 3G mobile communication systems which provide an enhanced range of multimedia services. It has evolved from its basic format through developments such as HSDPA (High Speed Downlink Packet Access) and HSUPA (High Speed Uplink Packet Access) to provide very high bandwidth capabilities to support the next generation of telecommunication services.

UMTS supports up to 1920 kbit/s data transfer rates (and not 2 Mbit/s as frequently seen), although at the moment users in the real networks can expect performance up to 384 kbit/s - in Japan upgrades to 3 Mbit/s are in preparation. However, this is still much greater than the 14.4 kbit/s of a single GSM error-corrected circuit switched data channel or multiple 14.4 kbit/s channels in HSCSD, and - in competition to other network technologies such as CDMA-2000, PHS or LAN - offers access to the World Wide Web and other data services on mobile devices.

Data rates of UMTS are:

144 kbps for rural

384 kbps for urban outdoor

2048 kbps for indoor and low range outdoor

Table ‎2. Topology of 3rd Generation

GSM basics

The GSM mobile phone technology with a varies design goals:

Good subjective speech quality

Low phone or terminal cost

Ability to be handheld

supporting international roaming

Good spectral efficiency

ISDN compatibility

The resulting GSM cellular technology was developed to meet the above. The whole GSM network system definition for GSM describes from the air interface to the network or infra structure technology. By adopting this technique it is possible to specify the operation of the network system to allow international roaming as well as allowing network elements from different product manufacturers operating alongside with each other, although this last property is incompletely true, especially with older

items products.

GSM summary

The GSM system is the common cellular telecommunications system to date. With user's numbers running into billions and still growing, it has been proved to have met its requirements. The following overview detail many basics of the GSM from the air interface, slot and frame structures to the physical and logical channels as well as details about the GSM network.

GSM Network Architecture

Technical specifications of the GSM specify the different components formed the GSM network system architecture. It specifies the different techniques and components which integrated to enable the whole network operation to be maintained.

GSM network architecture elements

The GSM network architecture as specified in the GSM specifications may be integrated into four main areas:

Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)

Base station subsystem (BSS)

Mobile station (MS)

Fig ‎2. Simplified GSM Network Architecture

Mobile station

Mobile equipment (ME), Mobile stations (MS), are most widely called cell or mobile phones are the main part of a GSM cellular network that the user know and uses. Recently their size has greatly decreased while the level of functionality has dramatically increased. The main elements of the mobile station are the hardware mobile phone and the SIM card.

The main hardware contains the main elements of the mobile phone which include the case, battery, screen, and the electronics circuit board used to generate the signal, and process the received and transmitted signal. It is also contains an ID number called the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). This is stored in the phone at manufacture and can’t be changed. It operates by the network at registration to check whether the mobile equipment has been reported as stolen equipment.

The SIM or user ID Module contains the necessary data which provides the identity of the Subscriber to the network. It contains a different variety of data including an ID number called the IMSI.

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) is part of the GSM network architecture that is basically associated with communicating with the mobiles on the network, divided into two main elements:

Base Transceiver Station (BTS):   The Base Transceiver Station used in a GSM network comprises the radio transmitter and radio receivers, and their associated antennas that transmit and receive to communicate with the mobiles. The BTS is the defining element for each Mobile. The BTS communicates with the mobiles and the interface between the two is known as the Um interface with its

associated protocols.

Base Station Controller (BSC):   The BSC forms the next stage back into the GSM network. It controls a group of BTSs, and is often co-located with one of the BTSs in its group. It manages the radio resources and controls items such as handover within the group of BTSs, allocates channels and the like. It communicates with the BTSs over what is termed the Abis interface.

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The GSM network subsystem formed from a variety of different elements, and is often called the core network. It represents the main control and interfacing for the whole mobile network system. The main elements of the core network include:

Mobile Switching services Centre (MSC):   The main element within the core network area of the overall GSM network architecture is the Mobile switching Services Centre (MSC).

Home Location Register (HLR):   This database contains all the administrative information about each subscriber along with their last known location.

Visitor Location Register (VLR):   This contains selected information from the HLR that enables the selected services for the individual subscriber to

be provided.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR):   The EIR is the entity that decides whether given mobile equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each mobile equipment has a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity.

Authentication Centre (AuC):   The AuC is a protected database that contains the secret key also contained in the user's SIM card. It is used for authentication and for ciphering on the radio channel.

Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC):   The GMSC is the point to which a ME terminating call is initially routed, without any knowledge of the

MS's location.

SMS Gateway (SMS-G):   The SMS-G or SMS gateway is the term that is used to collectively describe the two Short Message Services Gateways defined in the GSM standards.

Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

The Operation and Support Subsystem is an element within the overall GSM network architecture that is connected to components of the NSS and the BSC. It is used to Monitor and control the overall GSM network system and it is also used to control the traffic load of the BSS. It must be noted that as the number of BS increases with the scaling of the population subscriber some of the maintenance tasks are transferred to the BTS, leads to save the cost of ownership of the system.

Practical using in our Project:

Both of the GSM and GPRS may be required till now to implement the project but the GPRS is very important in the design of the project as it is the link between the control unite and the individual screens that are distributed along the ways. The GPRS is used to transmit the data via internet using some of the internet protocols like TCP/IP.

The GSM also may be used to support the GPRS function. As the used IPS for screens will be dynamic and for the control room will be static so from any screen it is easily to reach the control room to find the newest videos and instruction but from the control room it is imposable before the connection between it and the screen so the SMS may be used to if the control room need any information or need to give any information or identify any problem to the control room when the screen is not online .that is the most important use of the GSM and GPRS . More information about the final implementation will be provided in the implantation chapter.

Chapter 3

Solar Cells

Solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell)

Fig‎3. Solar Cell

Is a solid state electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect , Solar cell used to capture energy from sunlight also used to make solar modules And to generate useful power , There is more about the different types of solar cell ,The normal output voltage of a solar panel is usually 12 Volts, and they may be used singly or wired together into an array. The number and size required is determined by the available light and the amount of energy required. When solar cells absorb sunlight, free electrons and holes are created at positive/negative junctions. If the positive and negative junctions of solar cell are connected to DC electrical equipment, current is delivered to operate the electrical equipment[19].

Diode

A diode uses a semiconductor material, usually silicon, with two terminals attached. Diodes use their internal field to allow electric current to flow one way in a circuit and prevent it from flowing back.

Fig ‎3. Diode Circuit

Solar panels are comprised of PV cells in series. Each cell is an electricity generating unit. Remember that, just as in batteries, when cells are connected in series, the voltage is compounded. So a solar panel with 36 cells (each generating approximately .5 volts DC) in series is producing approximately 18 VDC for charging 12V batteries. If the battery bank is greater than 12V, several panels are wired in series to increase the panel voltage to match that of the battery. For instance, two panels in series would produce approximately 36 VDC for charging a 24V battery. If additional charging amperage is desired, two or more panel series strings are paralleled to increase the amperage output.

This example shows a typical series/parallel panel array configuration:

Fig ‎3. Parallel panel array configuration

Each PV cell (this also applies to the entire panel) is either a power producer or a power consumer, depending on whether it is exposed to sunlight or not. Diodes used in a blocking capacity are installed between parallel panel strings and/or between the entire array and the battery. They prevent current from flowing back into shaded paralleled series strings or arrays that are acting as a power consumer, discharging all of the power produced by the other series strings and/or the power stored in the battery at night when the array is darkened.

Fig ‎3. Blocking Diode of Parallel Panel Array

Diodes utilized in a bypass capacity are installed within the series string. There is a certain amount of resistance inherent in the forward direction of the diode. The diode's internal resistance is greater than that of a PV cell (or panel) when exposed to sunlight. The current follows the path of least resistance and flows through each consecutive cell (or panel) in the string. When a cell (or panel) in the series string is shaded (and potentially consuming power) the resistance in that cell (or panel) increases tremendously, making the bypass diode the path of least resistance. The current follows the path of least resistance, shunting the power through the bypass diode and through an alternate circuit around that PV cell (or panel) to the next producing PV cell or panel in the string. The only voltage loss is that created by eliminating the cell (or panel) that

is inactive.

Fig ‎3. Series Panel Array Configuration

Types of Diodes

There are two types of diodes in conjunction with PV arrays, plates Baebas diodes and diodes ban. This is not in fact two different but use the same device for two different purposes are that it causes the function block, and to prevent backflow to the bottom of the unit when you install a series of diodes in series with a series of modules;. When you install diodes in parallel with the units, they function as bypass to allow current to pass around the shaded area of the module.

Solar Cell Works

Fig ‎3. The Solar Cell Architecture

When sunlight hits the surface of solar cells as charge carrier creates electrons and holes. And swept to the positive holes or P layer and electrons to the negative or layer. When the circuit is made, and the free electrons have to pass through the load to re-compile with the positive holes, and can be produced from the cells under the current lighting. The internal field produced by the junction separates some of the positive charges (holes) of the negative charges (electrons)[17].

 Associated with solar cells of individual together to make a module (called a panel or panel solar PV) to increase the current and associated modules in a wide range (called "the solar system" or "PV group '). There is a relationship between the solar panels in a variety of ways depending on current or voltage requirement; solar arrays are connected in a variety of ways:

• If the solar arrays are connected in parallel, the output current will increase. 

• If the solar arrays are connected in series, the output voltage will increase.

Blocking Diodes:

Fig ‎3. Blocking Diode

Diodes placed in series with cells or modules can perform another function that of blocking reverses leakage current backwards through the modules. There are two situations where blocking diodes can help prevent the phenomenon.

•Blocking reverse flow of current from the battery through the module at night:

In battery charging systems, the module potential drops to zero at night, and the battery could discharge all night backwards through the module. This would not be harmful to the module, but would result in loss of precious energy from the battery bank. Diodes placed in the circuit between the module and the battery can block any nighttime leakage flow.

•Blocking reverse flow down damaged modules from parallel modules during

the day:

Blocking diodes placed at the head of separate series wired strings in high voltage systems can perform yet another function during daylight conditions. If one string becomes severely shaded, or if there is a short circuit in one of the modules, the blocking diode prevents the other strings from loosing current backwards down the shaded or damaged string. The shaded or damaged string is "isolated" from the others, and more current is sent on to the load. In this configuration, the blocking diodes are sometimes called "isolation diodes".

By –Pass Diodes:

Fig ‎3. By-Pass Diodes

The cells shaded shaded cells forced to pass more current that the new short circuit current. The only way shaded cells can operate at the highest current of the current status is a short circuit to work in the region of the negative voltage that causes the net voltage. When the shaded PV module, and the shaded cells will not be able to produce up now, because the United Nations shadowed once. Since all cells are linked in series, must be the same amount of current flow through each cell. This shading effect also depends on how the shaded units. This is much worse to highlight a single cell from 75% to highlight the three cells of 25% each. The current era this gives a negative voltage negative force produced by the shaded cells. In other words, the shaded cells dissipate energy as heat and cause "hot spots". And the shaded cells with drag down the overall IV curve of the group of cells. The effect of this shading is also dependent on how the module is shaded. It is far worse to shade one cell 75% than to shade three cells 25% each. So if shading cannot be avoided, try to spread the shading over the most number of cells. One way to minimize the effect shading has on a single module in a series string, is to use by pass diodes in the junction box. Bypass diodes allow current to pass around shaded cells and thereby reduce the voltage losses through the module. When a module becomes shaded its bypass diode becomes "forward biased" and begins to conduct current through itself. All the current greater than the shaded cell’s new short circuit current is "bypassed" through the diode, thus reducing drastically the amount of local heating at the shaded area. Diode unit also carries a full shaded or group of cells to a small negative voltage of about -0.7 volts, limiting the decline in the output array, thus limiting the reduction in array output. They are most likely to be of benefit where an MPPT Controller or String Inverter involves panels connected in series to produce voltage well above that items minimum input voltage. Some solar panels are constructed with the cells divided into groups, each group having a built-in by-pass diode. Shading of part of a panel may be caused by a tree branch, debris, or snow[18].

Types of solar cell

Is treated with silicon or "doped" to generate an electric current. Usually consists of silicon solar cells, the same material used for transistors and integrated circuits..

So that is released when light strikes it electrons, and three basic types of solar

cells available.

Mono-crystalline cells are cut from a silicon ingot grown from a single large crystal of silicon whilst polycrystalline cells are cut from an ingot made up of many smaller crystals

The second type is the amorphous or thin-film solar cell,

The third type is Hybrid Silicon PV Module.

There are three major cell types that classified by its manufacturing technology and the semiconductor:

Crystalline Silicon PV Module:

Two types of crystalline silicon (c-Si) are used to produce PV module; single crystalline silicon or known as mono crystalline silicon and multi-crystalline silicon, also called polycrystalline silicon. The polycrystalline silicon PV module has lower conversion efficiency than single crystalline silicon PV module but both of them have high conversion efficiencies that average about 10-12%.

Crystalline solar cells are wired in series to produce solar panels. This is sufficient to charge a 12 Volt battery under most conditions. As each cell produces a voltage of between 0.5 and 0.6 Volts, 36 cells are needed to produce an open-circuit voltage of about 20 Volts.

There difference between mono and poly crystalline:

Both poly-crystalline and mono-crystalline solar panels are made from the same material, silicon. However the difference is that the poly-crystalline material is made up of millions or billions of small silicon crystals while the mono-crystalline material is actual just that, one large singe crystal of silicon.

 Single crystal silicon is more efficient at converting photons to electrons for electricity, the poly-silicon it's much less efficient because electrons are captured or generated less efficiently where the crystals of silicon touch.

Amorphous Silicon PV Module:

Amorphous silicon (A-C) and the PV module or thin-film silicon PV module absorbs light more effectively than crystalline silicon PV module, so make the weight. Suitable for any applications for high efficiency for low cost. Typical efficiency of amorphous silicon PV module around6%.

The technology is often seen in amorphous solar panels, small calculators or garden lamps, and had formed a committee of one piece and the individual cells are not visible, such as other species. They are made by the deposit of a thin layer of silicon on a sheet of insulating material such as steel.

The efficiency of amorphous solar panels is not high, such as those made from individual solar cells; despite this, it has improved in recent years to the point that can be seen as a viable alternative to panels to make crystalline cells tram.

Both great advantage lies in the relatively low cost per watt of generating capacity. And can be offset, however, by the intensity of less powerful, there is a need for more panels to produce energy is the same so more space is required.

Hybrid Silicon PV Module:

A mixture of crystalline silicon and one is surrounded by thin layers of amorphous silicon provides excellent sensitivity to low light levels or indirect light. The Hybrid silicon PV module has the highest level of conversion efficiency about 17%.

Table ‎3. Compression of Solar cells Types Power and Efficiency

Types

Power (watt)

Efficiency %

Single crystalline silicon (mono)

From 135 – 170

From 14 – 17

Multi crystalline silicon (poly)

From 120 – 150

From 13 – 15

Amorphous Silicon

From 60 – 80

From 5 – 7

Table ‎3. Different Solar Cells with Batteries Power

Types

Voltage (V)

Power(W)

Current(A)

SOLAR CELL TPS‐946

17.50 volte

1.5 watt

Open Circuit Voltage: 15V

Short Circuit Current: 1.34

Peak Current:

2.37

251 SOLAR CELL 12v 45watt

(660x540)cm

Open Circuit Voltage: 22

Peak Voltage: 17.5

Max System Voltage: 600

Peak Power: 45watt

Open Circuit Voltage: 22V

Short Circuit Current: 2.84

Peak Current: 2.57

251 SOLAR CELL 12v 60 watt

Open Circuit Voltage: 22

Peak Voltage: 17.5

Max System Voltage: 600

Peak Power:

60 watt

Short Circuit Current: 3.08

Peak Current: 3.40

SOLAR CELL TPS‐102

12 volte

Optimum voltage: 17.50

Peak power output: 12Wat

Optimum current: 685m

Single-Crystal-Silicon-Polycrystalline

(18x29 )cm

(15x15)cm

(11x15)cm

(6x6)cm

TRONY solar module

3V to 24V

TROVY solar panels

0.5V to 24

TRONY solar module

2.5W~2.7W

TROVY solar panels

1mA to 10A

The advantage use of Solar Cell

Solar cell or photovoltaic cell produces clean non-polluting source of energy with electricity that is environmentally friendly.

It reduces the range of greenhouse gases such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrocarbons ..., etc..

It uses a fuel other than sunlight, and gives those who do not waste, do not burn, and no part to move when they operate.

With the attribute units, and therefore can be any size as required.

It is easy to install and transport.

Applications of solar cell

Home lighting system of internal and external, electrical equipment, and electric door opener, security system, a ventilator, water pump, water filtration and emergency light, etc..

Communication air navigational aids, air warning light illuminated, the lighthouse, beacon navigation aid, and a sign of land or rail transit signal, and lighting in the streets and emergency phone, etc..

Station telecommunications bis microwave, and telecommunication equipment, wireless and mobile communication equipment (eg radio communications for military service and training) and weather monitoring stations, etc..Water pumping Consumption, public utility, livestock watering, agriculture, gardening and farming, mining and irrigation, etc.

Agriculture Water pumping, agricultural products fumigator, thrashing machines and water sprayer, etc.   

Lighting a bus stop lighting system, telephone booth lighting, lighting panel, and parking lot lighting, interior and exterior lighting and street lighting, etc..

Battery charging system, emergency power system, battery charge status of the village in the rural areas and supply of energy for domestic use and lighting in a remote area, etc..

Livestock water pumping system, oxygen, and fill the fish and insects trapped lighting, etc..Health center Refrigerator and cool box for keeping medicines and vaccines and medical equipment, etc.

Space Satellite, international space station and spacecraft, etc.

Hill, a remote area, island, forest and remote area networks that facilities are not available, etc..

The power stored

The amount of power generated by solar cells is determined by the amount of light falling on them, which is in turn determined by the weather and time of day. In the majority of cases some form of energy storage will be necessary.

In a Grid-connected system,

the solar array is connected to the mains. Any surplus power is sold to the electricity company, and power is bought back from them when it is needed.

In a Stand-alone system,

however, this is not possible. In this type of system the usual choice for energy storage is the lead-acid battery. The number and type of batteries is dependent on the amount of energy storage needed.

Solar Power Batteries

In stand-alone systems the power generated by the solar panels is usually used to charge a lead-acid battery. Other types of battery such as nickel-cadmium batteries may be used, but the advantages of the lead-acid battery ensure that it is still the most popular choice. A battery is composed of individual cells; each cell in a lead-acid battery produces a voltage of about 2 Volts DC, so a 12 Volt battery needs 6 cells. The capacity of a battery is measured in Ampere-hours or Amp-hours (Ah).

For solar applications a battery needs to be capable of being discharged hundreds or even thousands of times. This type of battery is known as a deep-cycle battery, and some of the many different types are:

Table ‎3. Types of Deep Cycle Batteries

Types

capacity (AH)

Volt(V)

Definition

Picture

Leisure Batteries

From

60 120 (AH)

12 volt

Leisure batteries or caravan batteries are usually the cheapest type of deep-cycle battery. They look similar to a car battery but have a different plate construction.

Traction Batteries

From

3040 (AH) to many hundreds

6 to 12 volt units , the largest are single 2 volt

The term traction battery relates to all batteries used to power electric vehicles. This can mean anything from a mobility scooter to a fork-lift truck

Sealed Batteries

From

1 2 to single cell traction batteries of hundreds of Amp-hours

There are many types of sealed lead-acid batteries.

The advantages of sealed batteries are obvious; they need no maintenance and are spill-proof. 

The advantages of sealed batteries are obvious; they need no maintenance and are spill proof. 

disadvantages they are more expensive than other battery types, they require more accurate charging control and can have a shorter life

Practical usage in Project

The chose of the solar panel and the chargeable battery depends on the following:

How Much Power can you store?

Battery capacity is measured in Amp Hours (egg 17AH). You need to convert this to Watt Hours by multiplying the AH figure by the battery voltage (egg 12V).

For a 17AH, 12V battery the Watt Hours figure is 17 x 12 = 204WH

This means the battery could supply 204W for 1 hour, or 102W for 2 hours i.e. the more energy you take, the faster the battery discharges.

How much energy will your appliance(s) use over a period of time?

The power consumption of appliances is given in Watts (egg 21" fluorescent light, 13W). To calculate the energy you will use over time, just multiply the power consumption by the hours of use. The 13W light fitting, on for 2 hours, will take 13 x 2 = 26WH from the battery. Repeat this for all the appliances you wish to use, and then add the results to establish total consumption.

How much energy can a Solar panel generate over a period of time?

The power generation rating of a Solar panel is also given in Watts (eg 10W). To calculate the energy it can supply to the battery, multiply Watts by the hours exposed to sunshine, then multiply the result by 0.85 (this factor allows for natural system losses).

For the Solar 10W panel in 4 hours* of sunshine, 10 x 4 x 0.85 = 34WH. This is the amount of energy the Solar panel can supply to the battery.

If the project prototype is assumed to be a computer with its monitor the following calculated values is assumed to select both of the solar panel and battery

Power consumed in one hour =1500W

Power in one day =1500x24=36000WH

Total Power Needed: 36000Wh

The battery that the prototype need: 3000Ah of Battery Power

And the needed Solar Panel(s):882Watt (assuming 4 hrs sunlight)

So the required information is calculated from the market the battery and the solar panel will be selected depending on the life time, maintenance and the price.

Chapter 4

TCP/IP Protocols

Introduction

Two major technologies are driving the information society of the late 90s: cellular telephony and the Internet. While both developments have taken place independent of each other in the past, manufacturers and operators of cellular networks are showing increasing interest in combining both technologies to provide wide-area cellular Internet access. Today it is already commonplace to see users "dial-in" to the Internet via widearea cellular by connecting their laptops and palmtops to a mobile phone. In the near future, integrated devices will become available turning mobile phones running the TCP/IP stack or likewise palmtops equipped with cellular radios into regular Internet hosts. We believe that in the future a considerable fraction of the overall number of Internet hosts will be wireless devices. In this paper we specifically look at GSM (Global System for Mobile communications), today undoubtedly the most successful digital cellular telephony system. While significant work is currently being put into providing higher bandwidths in GSM other challenges have yet not been addressed. Two problems that exist when using GSM as the access network tithe Internet and that are not related to bandwidth are highlighted. We reveal the extremely high latency of the GSM link which through a series of measurements was determined to have a magnitude comparable to satellite links.

Today, but none of these services low bandwidth (<600 bit / s) really qualify as subjects for TCP / IP, in part because they do not provide constant communication on both sides. However, you can use to access the Internet through gateways to support interactive applications which are based on the exchange of small amounts of data. Wireless internet is the most powerful access technology to be available in a wide area in almost every country in the world by the turn of the millennium is GPRS (General Packet Radio Service).

GPRS is a packet data service, which was to become a unified network in GSM. The main advantages to users of GPRS is that they are always on the line, and can determine the bandwidth dynamically also disproportionately on up and - and falling pay-per-transmitted / received data size. Benefits to operators of GSM GPRS display a highly efficient and cost-effective use of shadow radio and network resources. You can find more details on GPRS in.

Function of Protocol in Network Communication

Technology independent Protocols

Many diverse types of devices can communicate using the same sets of

This is because protocols specify network functionality, not the underlying technology to support this

Fig ‎4. Function of Protocol in Network Communication

Internet Protocol Suite is a set of Internet protocols that are used in the Internet and other similar networks. It is commonly known as TCP/IP, because of its most important protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first networking protocols defined in this standard. Modern IP networking represents a synthesis of several developments that began to evolve in the 1960s and 1970s, namely the precursors of the Internet and local area networks, which emerged during the 1980s, together with the advent of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s.

Internet Protocol (IP)

(IP) The Internet Protocol: is the network protocol layer (layer 3) includes information and to address some of the information that enables the control to route packets. Been documented intellectual property in RFC 791 and is the primary network layer protocol in the Internet protocol suite. Along with the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), and IP represents the heart of the Internet Protocol. Intellectual property and two primary responsibilities providing connectionless, best-effort delivery of datagram's through an internetwork. Providing fragmentation and reassembly of datagram's to support data links with different maximum-transmission unit (MTU) sizes

The Internet protocol suite has four abstraction layers, each with its own protocols. From lowest to highest, the layers are:

The link layer contains communication technologies for a local network.

The internet layer connects local networks, thus establishing the internet.

The transport layer handles host-to-host communication.

The application layer contains all protocols defined specifically for the functioning of the vast array of data communications services. This layer handles application-based interaction on a process-to-process level between communicating Internet hosts

The TCP/IP model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

TCP/IP is based on a four-layer reference model. All protocols that belong to the TCP/IP protocol suite are located in the top three layers of this model.

DOD model since it was designed for the department of defense, or the internet protocol. It has the following layers, as shown in the following illustration.

TCP/IP model corresponds to one or more layers of the seven-layer Open Systems Interconnection

(OSI) reference model proposed by the International Standards Organization (ISO).

Fig ‎4. TCP/IP Architecture

 The four layer TCP/IP protocol. Each layer has a set of data that it generates:

1. Link layer is compatible with the hardware, including device driver and interface card. Link layer has data packets associated with it depending on the type of network being used such as ARCnet, Token Ring or Ethernet. In our case, (Ethernet.)

2. The network layer manages the movement of packets around the network and includes IP, ICMP, and IGMP.

It is responsible for making sure that packages reach their destinations, and if they don't, reporting errors.

3. The transport layer is the mechanism used to Gelatin computers to exchange data with respect to software. The two types of protocols that are the transport mechanisms are TCP and UDP. And I will talk about TCP and UDP in this document.

4. The application layer refers to networking protocols that are used Vidam various services such as FTP, Telnet, BOOTP, etc. Note here to avoid confusion, that the application layer refers generally to protocols such as FTP, Telnet, ping, and other programs designed for the purpose of specific and governed by a specific set of protocols specified by the RFC (request for comment).

However, the program can that I may write a definition of the structure of their data send between the client and the server program as long as the program we are working on both the client and server machine understand our protocol.

For example when our program opens a socket to another machine, it is using TCP protocol, but the data you send depends on how o structure it.

The types of services performed and protocols used at each layer within the TCP/IP model are described in more detail in the following table:

Table ‎4. The types of services performed and protocols used at each layer

Layer

Description

Protocols

Application

Defines TCP/IP application protocols and how host programs interface with transport layer services to use the network.

HTTP, Telnet, FTP, TFTP, SNMP, DNS, SMTP, X Windows, other application protocols

Transport

Provides communication session management between host computers. Defines the level of service and status of the connection used when transporting data.

TCP, UDP, RTP

Internet

Packages data into IP datagram's, which contain source and destination address information that is used to forward the datagram's between hosts and across networks. Performs routing of IP datagram's.

IP, ICMP, ARP, RARP

Network interface

Specifies details of how data is physically sent through the network, including how bits are electrically signaled by hardware devices that interface directly with a network medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or twisted-pair copper wire.

Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay, RS-232, v.35

Describe TCP/IP Mode

Fig ‎4. TCP/IP Description

Application Layer (process-to-process):

This is within the scope of applications that create user data and communicate this data to other applications or processes, or other in the same host. An often called partner contacts his peers. This is where the "highest level" protocols such as SMTP, FTP, SSH, HTTP, etc. that work.

Transport Layer (host-to-host):

The transport layer is a networking system between network hosts two, either on the local network or on remote networks separated by routers. In terms of flow control and error correction, and communication protocols exist, such as TCP. This layer deals with opening and maintaining communication between hosts on the Internet.

Internet Layer (internetworking):

The Internet layer has a mission for the exchange of packet data across the border in the network. And therefore also referred to as the class that define the Internet, but it defines and sets the Internet. In this layer defines the addressing and routing structures used in the TCP / IP protocol suite. Primary protocol in this area is the protocol Alanturntalve identifies IP addresses. Function in the guidance is to transfer data packets to the router contains the following IP connection to the network closer to the point of final data.

Link Layer:

This class specifies methods of communication within the scope of the link local network, which hosts to communicate without interference routers. This class describes the protocols used to describe the structure of the LAN interfaces to affect the transfer of data blocks on the web to the next layer neighbor hosts. (cf. the OSI Data

Link Layer).

Practical usage in project

In the project there is a network between the screens and the control room. The used protocol will be the TCP/IP protocol. This protocol uses the IP as an address for both the control room and any screen of the screens. so for any of the screen to talk with control unit it must know the IP of the control room and also for the control room to talk with any of the screen it must know the IP of that screen. To do this the IP address for both of the control room and the screen must be static but this statics IPs cost more than the Dynamic IPs. The idea was that the IP address for the control room will be static and the that is for every screen will be dynamic, there will be a folder for every screen on the control room server and the screen know the IP of the control room so it is easy for it to get the required videos and instructions from this server and also it is easy for the control room to replay for that screen by extracting the IP address of the source screen from the received Packet.

Chapter 5

Display Screens

Introduction

The display is surface output of the computer and the mechanism expected to show the text and pictures in many cases to the computer servant by using a cathode ray tube (CRT), liquid crystal display (LCD), light emitting diode (LED) and gas plasma (plasma), or other image projection technology. It is usually considered a screen or projection surface and the device to show the information on the screen. in some computers display is packaged in an independent unit called the device. In other computers, is integrated in the display unit with the processor and other parts of the computer. (Some sources make it discrimination, which includes the monitor the other signal-handling devices that supply and control on the monitor or projector, but this distinction disappears when all sections of this integrate in the unity of all, as the case for laptops computers.)

Monitors "displays", which is sometimes called video display terminals (VDTs). Often use the terms monitor and displays interchangeably.

Most computer screens use analog signals as input to create a mechanism to view the images. This condition need to continuously update the display image means that the computers also require the display adapter or video adapter. Video adapter takes the digital data sent by implementation programs and save it in RAM video (video RAM) memory, and converts it to analog data for display scanning mechanism using digital to analog converter (DAC).Displays can be characterized according to:

Color capability

Sharpness and view ability

The size of the screen

The projection technology

Color Capability

Currently, almost desktop displays provide color. And a small notebook and computers have sometimes display a less expensive monochrome. Display can usually works in one of several display modes that calculate the number of bits used to describe the color and how it can display a lot of colors. Can a screen that can operate in super VGA mode display up to 16777216 colors because it cannot handle 24-bit long characterization of a pixel. Defines the number of bits used to describe the pixel bit-depth. And known as the (24-bit) bit-depth and the real color. For each of the three additive primary colors it allows eight bits only - red, green and blue. Although people cannot really identify that many colors and 24-bit system is appropriate for graphic designers since it assigns one byte for each color. Visual Graphics Array (VGA) mode is the cheapest common denominator of display modes, depending on the preparation of a resolution, can supply up to 256 colors.

Sharpness and View ability

Absolute physical limit on the potential image sharpness of the image on the screen is the pitch point, which is the size of the packages on the individual to get through to light up the point of phosphorus on the screen. (This shape can be a form of a round beam or vertical, in the form of a rectangular slot depending on the display technology.)Displays usually come with a pitch of point 0.28 mm or less. The smallest dot-pitches in millimeters, and sharpen the image potential.

Intensity is measured by the actual destruction of any display picture, especially in dots per inch (dpi). Dots per inch is determined by a group of screen resolution (the number of pixels is expected to appear on the screen horizontally and vertically), and the size of the material screen, in the same resolution, distributed on a larger screen offers reduced sharpness. On the other hand, high-resolution setting will be the smallest surface of the product on a bright image, but reading the text will become more difficult.

Ability view includes the ability to see the image displayed on the screen well from different angles, displays with cathode ray tubes (CRT) ability to provide good overall view from other angles than directly view. Flat panel displays, including those that use light-emitting diode and liquid crystal display technology, and are often difficult to see in the angles other than directly view[8].

The Size of the Screen

On the desktop, the screen width with respect to height, known as the aspect ratio is usually standardized by 4 to 3 (usually referred to as "4:3"). Screen sizes are measured in millimeters or inches each from one corner to the opposite corner. Popular sizes of the desktop screen are a 12 -, 13 -, 15 - and 17-inch. Size of the laptop screen is smaller.

The Projection Technology

Most displays are currently in use employ cathode ray tube (CRT) technology similar to that used in most televisions. The CRT technology requires a specific distance from the support projection device on the screen to function. The use of other technologies can be much thinner displays and flat screens are as well known. Flat panel display technologies include light emitting diode (LED), a liquid crystal display (LCD) and gas plasma. LED and gas plasma work by lighting up display positions based on the voltages at various cross connection. LCD monitors work by blocking light rather than creating it. LCDs demand less power than LED and gas plasma technologies and are presently the principal technology for laptops and other portable computers

Handle data input displayed as character maps for bit-maps. In character and mapping mode, has a view of the amount allocated space for each pixel character, in a bitmap, it receives the exact representation of the image screen that is expected in the form of a series of bits that describe a particular color values ​​of x and y coordinates from a specific location on the screen. The handle bitmaps displaying are known asall-points addressable displays.

Different Types of Screen Displays

Table ‎5. Compression of Different Types of Screens Display

Display

Picture

Resolution

Power

Viewing angle

Response time milliseconds

Price

Size

CRT

250% or more power

Wide viewing angle

Cheap

Bulky

LCD

"Low"

minimal power requirements

1 and 300 microwatts

Narrow viewing angle

Fast response time

Expensive

Slim

LED

There is a number of standard resolutions: 160x120; 320x240; 640x480 etc

Faster response time

Expensive

Slim

PLASMA

native resolutions for plasma display panels are 853×480 (EDTV), 1,366×768 or 1,920×1,080 (HDTV)

very low Power 1 and 2 microwatts

Wider viewing angles

Very fast response time

Expensive

average

OLED

Low power less than PLAZMA

Excellent viewing angle

Expensive

No limited

CRT

Cathode Ray Tubes Were used in the first versions of TV screens and passed computer monitors, and the surprising it still very popular today. This is mainly because it features reliably and useful. It features a curved display, allowing viewers to see the image from any angle without the colors blur together.

They come in finite volume, and are very large and thick (and not practical for your laptop or mobile), and the production of glare that causes irritation. Although they are didn't needed any more the Cathode rays can also burn on the screen, so someone came up with the screen savers, which simulate moving colors to stop the display still images automatically and burn in the screen permanently, We still have this today.

The reason they are huge and thick due to the increased width of the screen should be increasing the length of the tube in order to give the gun room to reach each phosphorus atom on the screen.

CRT’s work by having a different color cathode ray projected on the back of the screen. A gun fires a beam of electrons inside a glass tube. "Raise" phosphorus atoms of electrons across the screen which light up. The shown image is created by igniting different areas of the phosphor that covered screen with different colors in

different intensity.

Monitor Size and Viewable Area

All CRT monitors are sold based on the size of their screen. This is usually listed on the basis of measuring the diagonal of the bottom corner to corner across the top of the screen in inches. However, the size of the screen does not translate to the actual display size, In general, the monitor tube partially covered by the outer casing of the screen. In addition, the tube usually cannot draw a picture of the edges of a full size tube. As such, you really want to look at the measurement area of the offer from the manufacturer. Usually, the clear area on the screen is approximately from 0.9 up to 1.2 inches smaller than the diagonal tube.

Resolution

All CRT monitors now referred to as multiple simultaneously screens. The screen is capable of tuning such as electron beam that is capable of displaying multiple resolutions at time variation in the rates of update .Here is a list of some of the more commonly used resolutions along with the acronym for that resolution:

SVGA = 800x600

XGA = 1024x768

SXGA = 1280x1024

UXGA = 1600x1200

There is a wide range of resolutions available in standard between standard resolutions that also can be used by the monitor. The average 17" CRT should be able to easily do the SXGA resolution and may even be able to reach the UXGA. Any 21" or larger CRT should be able to do UXGA and higher.

Advantages:

Very good color and top dynamic range (up to around 15,000:1), wide gamut and excellent or low black level (depending on CRT display settings).

No native resolution; the only display technology qualified of true multi-syncing (displaying a lot of various resolutions and refresh rates without the need for scaling).

No input lagging

No shadows and staining artifacts throughout fast motion due to sub-millisecond response time, and impulse-based operation.

Near zero color, saturation, brightness distortion or contrast.

Permit the use of light guns/pens.

wonderful viewing angle.

Disadvantages:

Size and weight are large, especially for larger screens (20 inches (51 cm) and the unit weighs about 50 lbs (23 kg)).

Comparatively high power consumption with a highly brightness contrast levels and fast scan rates.

Generates a considerable amount of heat when running.

Purpose a geometric distortion by mutable beam travel distances but almost no distortion in the current and/or high-end CRT monitor (not TV) only.

Suffer screen can burn-in

Flicker produces a noticeable at low refresh rates.

Apart from televisions, CRT displays are normally only produced in 4:3 aspect ratios (though some widescreen CRT monitors, notably Sony's GDM-FW900, do exist).

Repair and service are dangerous.

Dimension smaller than seven inches color displays cannot be done. And limited the maximum size of the screens directly to about 40 inches because of practical constraints and manufacturing restriction (CRT screen of this size can weigh about 300 pounds.

Glass envelopes contain large amounts (kilogr