Multiplier In Non Conventional Operations

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

CHAPTER 2

21. The desire to put machinery rather than humans in harm’s way has always been a feature of military history. As the balloon age gave way to fixed wing aviation, the possibility of using unmanned platforms for reconnaissance was investigated by a number of nations. As ever, warfare was the ‘mother of invention’ and great strides were made in Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle (UCAV) design and conceptualisation in both the First and Second World Wars. Over the ages many countries have employed the UAVs and UCAVs as a force multiplier in conventional ops, but the main exponents of the unmanned vehicles have been the USA and Israel.

Use of UAVs & UCAVs by USA in Conventional Operations

22. Vietnam War. On 10 August 1964 President Lyndon B. Johnson issued the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, and the United States became involved in the Vietnam War. This was the first war that saw an extensive use of UAVs. A total of 3,435 operational reconnaissance UAV sorties were flown in Southeast Asia between 1964 and 1975 [1] . These sorties involved 1,016 Ryan 147s of varying configurations and models. The 147s made great contributions to the war effort and served as the workhorse of the Vietnam-era UAVs [2] .

23. During the war, Russian-built surface-to-air missiles made photo reconnaissance missions in piloted U-2s or SR-71s an exceedingly dangerous occupation over North Vietnam. The solution to the mounting losses in terms of aircrafts and trained pilots came in the form of UAVs. Aircraft were lost but no pilots were killed or taken prisoner. Teledyne Ryan Aeronautics modified its basic Firebee target drone to carry out pre-programmed, autonomous, long-range reconnaissance missions. By the end of the war, some 28 variants for specific missions had been developed to include gathering photographic, infrared and electronic intelligence information, acting as decoys in probing enemy defences and carrying out electronic countermeasures.

24. In the face of multiple hazards like SAMs, AAA Sites and MIG 21s, the Firebee drones were modified in order to meet a variety of reconnaissance roles. One variant was fitted with a Low Altitude Barometric Control System, which allowed it to fly at ultra-low levels to avoid North Vietnamese radar. Another variant was modified to fly at very high altitude, and another, known as the 147E, was designed to meet the requirement for an ELINT platform. This particular model proved invaluable for assessing the nature of the SAM’s guidance system and its fusing mechanism, and this intelligence was used subsequently by SAM suppression aircraft (Wild Weasels). The Firebee were also employed as target drones in a ‘strike package’ concept, whereby they flew below manned strike aircraft and high altitude reconnaissance drones, drawing enemy fire. Later in the war, Firebee target drones were used to draw fire away from B-52s operating over North Vietnam. Following successes with chaff dispensing drones in 1967-68, additional experimentation also proved the worth of the Firebee as an Electronic Counter-Measures platform [3] . In 1969, the loss of a manned ECM aircraft, an EC-121 Super Constellation, with 31 personnel on board, spurred the development of a drone capable of data collection and transmission. This model, known as the 147TE, could collect electronic intelligence from a range of 600 miles from its parent aircraft. This marked a true revolution in ECM technology, because a drone fitted with ten receivers could collect the same amount of data as a manned ECM platform, such as the EC-121, and relay the data instantaneously [4] . By the end of the Vietnam War, great strides had also been made in photographic reconnaissance. The Firebee photographic reconnaissance models available in 1967-68 had operational ceilings of up to 66,000 feet and a range of over 400 miles, and could photograph a 22 mile wide strip along a pre-determined track of 800 miles. By 1972, the 147SC model was fitted with an all-round horizon perspective, and the on-board cameras were capable of continuous photographic coverage along a 155 mile path, with resolutions of less than one-third of a metre. Course corrections in this model were also achieved by Doppler radar. The 147SC model performed 1,651 operational missions in the last two years of the Vietnam War, and a late war modification also saw the 147SC Firebee used in night reconnaissance, and some drones were equipped with infra-red sensors [5] .

25. During the course of the war the Lightning Bug provided some invaluable results. Some accomplishments were:

(a) It obtained the first photographic evidence of SA-2 missiles in North Vietnam.

(b) It took the first photographs of Soviet MiG-21D/E aircraft in North Vietnam.

(c) It obtained photographic evidence of Soviet helicopters in North Vietnam.

(d) It photographed an SA-2 missile detonation at close range (20 to 30 feet).

(e) It was also used to provide daily low altitude bomb damage assessment (BDA) of B-52 raids during "Linebacker II." [6] 

26. Gulf War I and II (1991 and 2003) - The US used UAVs extensively in both the Gulf Wars. During Gulf War I, the Pioneer UAV flew more than 530 missions into Iraqi airspace. The BAI-Exdrone and the French Alpilles-MART were among other UAVs which were used effectively by the US. Besides the orthodox employment like surveillance, reconnaissance, Arty fire control and target acquisition, the UAVs were used productively for individual chemical agent detection (ICAD), pre-ingress route recce of Apache AH-64 helicopters, and C3I functions. They were also used for damage assessment, electronic warfare, signal intelligence and communication intelligence. The US Navy made use of UAVs for detection of enemy ships, locating Silkworm anti-shipping missile launch sites, direction of naval gunfire and mine detection. Pioneers were also used in an over-the-horizon-targeting (OTHT) role to direct shore bombardment by the USS Iowa's 16-inch guns. With the Pioneers acting as eyes on the target, the ship's gunners recorded notable hits. In one instance, gunners in combination with the Pioneer were able to destroy their targets using one-third as many shells as gunners without a UAV. The Navy had also used the Pioneer in a ship-surveillance role, in the Persian Gulf with impressive results. The coalition forces had employed UAVs effectively as Force Multipliers for persistent surveillance, wide area reconnaissance and prompt battle damage assessment using UAVs like the Pointer, Pioneer, Mart, Midge and the Exdrone. The US Marine Corps made extensive use of its UAVs to offset the overall shortfall in aircraft-based reconnaissance.

27. Lessons Learnt. Some of the important lessons learnt from employment of UAVs in Gulf War were as follows:-

(a) Rather than having one all-purpose model like the Pioneer, with US, it is better to have a diverse family of mission specific UAVs.

(b) It was easier to operate smaller tactical UAVs near the front lines.

(c) There was a need for long-endurance UAVs, which could take off from depth and yet patrol strategic areas of the enemy.

(d) Small numbers of less visible mini UAVs could carry out recce missions with high survivability.

Use of UAVs & UCAVs by Israel in Conventional Operations

28. Israel has actively employed unmanned aircraft in all the wars since 1973. They have used US-built drones like the Teledyne Ryan 124 and Northrop Chukar and indigenously built RPVs like the Tadiran Mastiff, the Israeli Aircraft Industries Scout and the Mazlat Pioneer.

29. Yom Kippur War 1973. In October 73, the Israelis successfully used the Teledyne Ryan 124 drones on the Syrian and Egyptian fronts as reconnaissance and surveillance platforms, decoys and also UCAVs. The reconnaissance missions brought back valuable intelligence information and often the drones drew the fire of Arab surface to air missiles (SAMs) thus causing the irrelevant expenditure of valuable missiles and the weakening of Arab defences. The Israeli Air Force, on the second day of the war, used Firebees to lead attacks on Egyptian air defences along the Suez Canal. The Egyptians fired most of their SAMs at this first wave of UCAVs, and the Firebees successfully evaded 32 of the SAMs, and destroyed 11 others with Shrike anti-radar missiles [7] .

30. Operation "Peace for Galilee". The Israelis made extensive use of UAVs in the Bekaa Valley operations. The Israeli Air Force had used these drones in the months preceding the invasion to "fingerprint" surface-to-air radar, providing information vital to Israeli countermeasures [8] . When the battle actually began, UAVs were used as "decoys" to electronically simulate the radar signature of full-size strike aircraft and trick the Syrians into activating their SAM target acquisition and tracking radars [9] . This ruse provided ample targets for the AGM-78 Standard anti-radiation missile (ARM) and AGM-45 Shrike air-launched ARMs that followed [10] . Other UAVs served as cheap and survivable intelligence platforms because they were constructed out of aluminium and composite materials for a minimal radar and infrared signature. They were employed most often as photographic platforms or "real-time" video intelligence systems whose fields of view, zoom ratios, and flight plans could be pre-programmed or changed at the discretion of the commander [11] . Once the tactical reconnaissance and deception functions were completed and strike aircraft were directed to the SAM sites, air-launched laser-guided ordnance was guided to the target by laser designators mounted on the UAVs [12] . The UAVs also provided constant, real-time surveillance of Syrian air force bases, alerting IAF air battle controllers to the take-offs of Syrian aircraft, helping them to vector IAF aircraft to optimal intercept coordinates, contributing to the lopsided score in a series of air battles, in which Israeli pilots shot down 80–100 Syrian aircraft without incurring a single loss. UAVs also assisted the IDF’s ground campaign. Drones furnished real-time intelligence on the location and movement of Syrian and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) units. Such data clearly assisted IDF commanders in planning and executing impressive tactical engagements, such as the large-scale defeat inflicted on Syrian armor by Israeli tanks and infantry around Lake Karoun. The employment of drones as part of the IDF’s ground campaign, in short, opened up a whole new avenue in air-land battlefield cooperation and was a major factor contributing to the success of the Israeli Armed Forces.

31. Lessons Learnt. During the operation certain important lessons were learnt, namely:-

(a) The UAVs substantiated their claim as a major force multiplier & re-emphasized the world’s faith in their utility in the modern battlefield.

(b) UAVs with specific task related capability, instead of an all-purpose UAV, would be more suitable in modern warfare.

(c) The low signatures (radar, IR, acoustic and optical) reduced the UAVs susceptibility to ground fire and electronic counter measures.

(d) The Bekaa Valley operation proved that UAVs are a cost effective means of conducting electronic warfare and intelligence gathering.

(e) The UAVs proved to be the ideal platform for employment in the dense AD environment of a modern TBA.

CHAPTER 3

IMPACT OF UAVs AND UCAVs AS FORCE MULTIPLIER

IN NON-CONVENTIONAL OPERATIONS.

"Knowledge of an enemy's dispositions and movements has always been a

key to success in war."

John Taylor, "Spies in the Sky"

32. As the spectre of large scale conventional war diminishes in the modern day world order, it is the threat of prolonged non- conventional operations which is rearing its head. 9/11 forced the world to realise the growing power of Terrorist organisations. The US led Global War on Terror (GWOT) has been supported by many nations, but there is no end in sight to the menace of Fourth Generation Warfare (4GW). Non-conventional operations are different from conventional operations in that the armed forces are forced to fight an enemy that is often impossible to distinguish from civilians or is so embedded in their midst that there is no way to separate them in terms of air strikes or land attacks. This is particularly true of the fighting in populated areas and street by street combat. It is in such a scenario that UAVs can help in providing persistent surveillance over difficult terrain. Over the years many countries across the world have successfully employed UAVs and UCAVs as Force Multiplier in non-conventional operations. A few such examples of their usage against non-regular forces are given in succeeding paragraphs.

33. Cuban Crisis - The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 demonstrated the need for timely intelligence gathering, while at the same time highlighting the political sensitivities attached to manned over flight. On 14 October, 1962, a US reconnaissance aircraft detected the installation of Soviet missiles in Cuba, and daily U-2 reconnaissance of Cuba continued until two weeks later, when one of these aircraft was shot down by a SAM missile. As a consequence, the employment of UAVs was quickly given top priority. Over the next two months, modified Firebees performed both photographic reconnaissance and ELINT missions to gather radar frequencies of Soviet built Cuban radars over Cuba, and such was the success of these operations, the Firebee was then employed officially by the USAF’s 4080th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing [13] .

34. Bosnian Conflict. With the success of UAVs in the Gulf War, they have become a popular platform for aerial surveillance over Bosnia and elsewhere in the Balkans. In an effort to decrypt the complex situation in the region, the United Nations and NATO deployed a plethora of surveillance assets, including UAVs. The first UAV deployed over Bosnia was the Gnat-750 long-endurance UAV. The Central Intelligence Agency operated it from the Croatian island of Hvar in 1993. Shortly after the Gnat-750 became operational in the region, the US Marine Corps deployed Pioneer UAVs with Task Force Eagle, the US contingent to the intervention force (IFOR). In July 1995 the Predator UAV deployed to Albania for a six-month joint service operation during which Predators flew 128 missions in support of NATO operations Deny Flight and Deliberate Force. USAF Predators operated from Tazsar, Hungary, for another six-month deployment in support of IFOR. The NATO forces in Kosovo-Bosnia used the Tier-2 Predator to monitor the enforcement of cease-fire. Specific tasks included detection of movement of ammunition at night and detection of tampering of mass graves by Bosnian Serbs at night. [14] 

35. Israel – Hezbollah Conflict. The Israeli Air Force’s UAVs played an active part in its two large-scale anti-Hezbollah actions, Operation Accountability in 1993 and Operation Grapes of Wrath in 1996. Before the start of the operations, the IAF had employed UAVs to locate Hezbollah command centres, training sites, arms depots and rocket launchers. During the fighting, UAVs provided real-time data on several objectives, including vehicles transporting insurgents from one location to another and mobile rocket launch sites. Air and artillery units then destroyed these objectives with accurate fire. UAVs, most importantly, relayed real-time intelligence on terrorist positions and movements to air and ground units in Judea, Samaria, and Gaza around the clock and played an integral part in many "targeted attacks" by helicopter gunships on terrorist operatives and Qassam rocket launch sites. UCAVs also executed some of these targeted attacks. [15] 

36. Perhaps the most extensive deployment of UAVs, however, occurred during the Second Lebanon War and Operation Cast Lead. During the first night of the Second Lebanon War, IAF aircraft essentially destroyed Hezbollah’s long-range rocket force in 30 minutes of intensive air strikes. UAVs, quite likely, not only helped to pinpoint the launch vehicles prior to this air assault, but also took part in target acquisition during the strikes and in battle-damage assessments after them. Real-time surveillance of medium- and short-range rocket launch sites by UAVs throughout the fighting also drastically shortened the "sensor-to-shooter" loop by the end of the war; IAF aircraft and helicopter gunships were able to destroy launchers within a mere two minutes of launch detections by UAVs. UCAVs carried out some attacks on Hezbollah targets, while other UAVs "painted" these objectives with laser designators for air-delivered PGMs [16] .

37. Operation Enduring Freedom. After 9/11 attacks on America by terrorists associated with Afghanistan based Al Qaida terrorist network, the US military began Operation Enduring Freedom on 7 October 2001, planned to root out Osama Bin Laden and the Al Qaida. The use of UAVs expanded quickly in Afghanistan as part of a counterinsurgency strategy that sought to reduce civilian casualties by enabling the United States Air Force(USAF) to reduce speculative targeting. The Predator UAV was a very important element in the campaign, with its video cameras gathering intelligence for as long as 20 hours, and then striking without warning. The UAVs were also used to detect time sensitive and high priority targets for air strikes. The UAVs had identified Taliban fighters, monitored their weapons storehouses and their routes in and out of the area, and mapped where they were planting roadside bombs. Although UAVs were mostly used for surveillance, they were also used to carry out missile strikes on Taliban targets across Afghanistan.

38. As part of its Global War On Terror ( GWOT) the U S has also used its UAVs and UCAVs to engage terrorists in Pakistan and Yemen. The most widely reported drone strike in 2011 was the killing of Anwar al-Awlaki in Yemen on September 30, 2011 [17] . On 3 November 2002, an MQ-1B operating over Yemen spotted a car that was identified as carrying a high ranking Al Qaida official and five of his people. The Predator blasted the car with a Hellfire, killing all the occupants. The UAV was operated by the CIA & was being flown by a USAF pilot from a French military base in Djibouti, in the horn of Africa. The United States has also been using the UCAVs along the Eastern borders of Afghanistan, including the tribal areas of Pakistan, to gather intelligence as well as striking at time sensitive targets. In 2010 alone, the United States launched 118 drone strikes in Pakistan, indicating an exponential increase in reliance on UAVs over past years.

Force Multiplier Effects

39. As is seen from the examples mentioned above, the UAVs and UCAVs have been effectively used as Force Multipliers in non-conventional operations. The major advantages accrued by employment of UAVs have been listed as under:-

(a) Reconnaissance. When facing insurgents who blend into a local population, good intelligence is worth more than even the smartest bomb. The advantage of having an ‘Eye in The Sky’ to provide early warning and enhance the situational awareness of the tactical commander is worth much more than fire support provided after the contact is established. The UAVs have been used extensively to provide real time Full Motion Video(FMV) of the area of operations before own forces go in for any operation thus reducing own casualties.

(b) Surveillance. The need for a constant watch over the area of operations and interest cannot be underestimated. The UAVs, with their enhanced endurance and low operating costs have been very effective in providing persistent real time surveillance over the Tactical Battle Area(TBA).

(c) Target Acquisition. The UAVs have been instrumental in helping to identify and track valuable targets in the difficult terrain. It has also been effective in providing targeting data to own Air Force and Artillery assets as well as being used themselves as strike platforms.

(d) Psychological Operations. The UAVs have also been used effectively as part of Psychological operations to gain an upper hand in actions against insurgents and have succeeded in putting the fear of having a constant aerial eye on them in the mind of the extremists. [18] 

(e) Electronic Intelligence. The electronic sensors on board the UAVs can be employed gainfully in signal mapping of the various sets used by the insurgents. With their persistent coverage, the UAVs can be used to intercept and locate the sources of insurgent transmissions and guide own forces to destroy them.

CHAPTER IV

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND FUTURE TRENDS

"We have just won a war with a lot of heroes flying around in planes. The next

war may be fought with airplanes with no men in them at all. It certainly will be

fought with planes so far superior to those we have now that there will be no

basis for comparison. Take everything you’ve learned about aviation in war and

throw it out of the window and let’s go to work on tomorrow’s aviation. It will be

different from anything the world has ever seen."

General Henry H. "Hap" Arnold

40. Operational Need For UAVs And UCAVs. The development of UAVs and UCAVs has been progressing in an uneven manner. Few periods of substantial development have been followed by relative inaction. There have been some basic operational requirements that have led to the evolution of the UAVs and UCAVs as we see them at present. These basic operational needs are as follows:-

(a) Persistent area surveillance providing continuous real time update of battlefield operations.

(b) Battlefield reconnaissance to provide real-time update and feedback.

(c) Real-time Artillery engagement of targets.

(d) Post-Strike Damage Assessment on targets engaged.

(e) Communication relay via airborne or ground assets.

(f) Monitoring of routes for checking infiltration/exfiltration in Low Intensity Conflict scenario.

(g) Requirement of entire ambit of Electronic Warfare.

41. Limitations of Present Day UAVs. Despite the many capabilities of present generation UAVs, there are certain limitations to overcome. Some current concerns with regards to UAVs are:-

(a) UAV survivability. Although the reduced noise levels and radar cross sections along with low infrared signature are strengths of UAVs, they are not invulnerable.

(i) Most UAVs are comparatively slow in comparison to manned jets. Jets diminish their disclosure to hostile fire courtesy their high speeds. UAVs, on the other hand, have to maintain a slower speed to increase their on station time, whereby they can loiter over a hostile area to pass information back to friendly forces.

(ii) As the UAVs depend on line-of-sight guidance, they cannot use terrain to shield themselves from the adversary’s detection and fire like airplanes do while performing their mission.

(iii) Also current UAVs lack redundant on-board systems like aircraft to continue their missions once damaged by enemy fire.

(b) Data-Link Technology. Another concern for UAVs is the existing data-link technology which restricts their range and flexibility. The use of relay UAVs may however resolve this limitation in the future, by passing collected information back to friendly forces. Current data links are also vulnerable to jamming, and decreasing this weakness drives up the cost of UAVs.

(c) Manpower And Training Requirements. Current manpower and training requirements for operating UAVs is an important area that needs to be reviewed. For example, operating an air-launched UAV unit in Southeast Asia in 1974 required 94 people of the USAF to sustain a sortie rate of two per day. The same sortie rate for a ground-launched version of the new US medium-range UAV, requires only 16 people [19] . Thus in addition to increasing the fleet of UAVs, it is equally important that trained manpower be catered for operating the same.

42. Developments in UAV technology are however, helping to correct these deficiencies. Efforts are continuing in signature reduction to make UAVs even harder to detect. Multispectral sensors are being developed to effectively control UAVs in bad weather, making them tougher to detect and destroy. Other advances include changed flight profiles so the UAVs become more unpredictable and thus harder to engage, augmented range for the sensors so the UAVs can operate from standoff ranges and the use of countermeasures against the adversary’s guided air defense weapons. Modern technologies, for example millimeter-wave data links, laser communications, and ultrawide-band data links, will diminish the probability of detecting, much less jamming, future links. Manpower requirements may be reduced by automated maintenance aids replacing maintenance technicians in the field. "Smart" training systems will reduce the training requirements.

43. The impact of developing technology on the future of UAVs and UCAVs is likely to be in the under mentioned fields:-

(a) Cost. One particular important field for the future of unmanned aircraft is the likely impact of emerging technology on the cost of these aircraft. At the general level, technology is likely to be engaged to drive down the total cost of unmanned aircraft in the inventory. Here a great deal can be done by improving reliability, perhaps though not necessarily, by accepting some increase in unit cost, but at the same time reducing the number of aircraft required to complete a given mission.

(b) Advances in IR Technology. Advances in IR designs seem likely to produce important operational improvements. In particular, the number of IR detectors elements that can be fitted within an IR seeker head is being dramatically increased and this gives the following advantages:-

(i) Resolution. Resolution is improved so that better surveillance and more detailed ELINT will be possible.

(ii) Field of View. Field of view is increased with obvious advantages for reconnaissance and target acquisition.

(iii) Sensitivity. The sensitivity of the seeker is enhanced increasing its range by as much as a factor of two and giving better effectiveness in poor atmospheric conditions.

(c) Advancements in Millimetric Wave Radars. In the future the advancements in millimetric wave radars are likely to be very significant. As the size of the radar is directly related to the wave length, the radar fit carried by an unmanned aircraft can be much smaller. Secondly as high frequencies have narrow beam widths they are far less easy for opposing force defences to jam. Lastly the higher frequencies give narrower beam widths which improve the discrimination of the radar and its ability to detect smaller targets.

(d) Miniaturisation. The continuing trend in micro miniaturisation of electronics and the striking increase in computational densities are likely to have a great impact on the control and operation of UAVs. In the last one decade computing power using VLSI etc. has increased by a factor of ten and the volume required has been reduced by a factor of six. This continuing process of increasing computational density clearly has very important implications for the operational function of future UAV and in particular for the physical size of the payload and ultimately for the craft itself. This is likely to mean that UAV in roles such as surveillance will have a good chance of escaping detection and engagement and that even if they are acquired by opposing weapon systems, the relatively high cost of their destruction would be justified only by the certainty that the target was indeed a reconnaissance machine and not a decoy

44. Across the world most countries have realised the necessity and importance of UAVs and UCAVs. As a result, there is a lot of research and development taking place in the field. Most of the countries are focussing on improving the surveillance capabilities, enhancing the Radius of Action (ROA) and on station time, reducing the cross section and radar signature and enhancing the strike capabilities of the UAVs and UCAVs. A few emerging technologies in the field of UAVs and UCAVs are covered in succeeding paragraphs.

45. Gorgon Stare. This is a new video capture technology being developed by the United States military, also known as wide-area surveillance sensor system. It is an array of nine cameras attached to an aerial drone that makes it possible to monitor a four square kilometres area in real time. The system is capable of capturing video of an entire city, which can then be analysed by humans and/or artificial intelligence systems. Any ground or airborne unit within range of Gorgon Stare’s Tactical Common Data Link (TCDL) and equipped with a Remote Operations Video Enhanced Receiver, One System Remote Video Terminal or a hand-held receiver can view one of the chip-outs [20] .

46. Phantom Eye UAV. To fulfil the need for continuous battlefield surveillance, Boeing has developed the Phantom Eye UAV, a drone aircraft that can scout a theatre of operations for up to four days at a time without blinking. This high altitude, long endurance (HALE) UAV relies on a mix of hydrogen power and portly aerodynamics to stay aloft for the duration. The UAV can carry up to 450 pounds of equipment—in addition to the 1,900 pounds of liquid hydrogen—while cruising at an average speed of 150 knots (170 MPH) and as high as 65,000 feet. To maintain combustion at those

heights, the Phantom Eye leverages a multi-turbo system to compress the thin air enough to burn—it also reduces the plane's heat signature, making it harder to track [21] .

47. Electric tethered observation platform (ETOP). Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) has developed a hovering aerial vehicle (HAV) based on the concept of elevating medium weight sensors for persistent surveillance missions. The system, designated 'Electric Tethered Observation Platform'(ETOP) is a tethered unmanned hovering platform which can take off, hover in one place, and land without any additional landing and recovery systems. It can be deployed from a static or moving ground vehicle or station. ETOP comprises of an assembly of four ducted rotors in a configuration that provides enough space for carrying a payload weight of about 20 kg at the center of gravity. Electrical power feeding the propulsion system, sensors, flight control and communications are fed from the ground through the tether which extends to length of about 100 meters (328 feet) [22] .

48. Switchblade. Part of the family of small unmanned air systems (SUAS), It weighs less than six pounds, can be carried in a soldier’s backpack and is launched from a mortar-like tube. Once airborne, it sends back color video imagery and GPS coordinates which the soldier can view on a hand-held ground controller. What makes Switchblade unique is the ability to transition from a low-flying reconnaissance drone to small bomb with the flick of a switch by the soldier operating the ground controller. When detonated, it acts like a flying shotgun blast, but the small, controlled explosion cuts down on the risk of harming nearby non-combatants and bystanders [23] .

49. Future Trends. Development programmes being undertaken in most advanced countries are aimed towards incorporating new technologies to answer many of the employability, survivability and capability shortcomings currently plaguing the existing UAVs. The likely future trends in the development of UAVs can be summarised under the following broad headings:-

(a) Joint Unmanned Combat Aircraft System. The next step in development is a UAV capable of truly autonomous operation. The Joint Unmanned Combat Aircraft System (J/UCAS) program is a US Air Force-Navy effort to develop a stealthy, high-subsonic jet UAV, capable of performing electronic attack and penetrating strike missions. The J/UCAS has successfully tested several new UAV capabilities, including semi-autonomous operation, multi-UAV control by a single operator, formation flight, multi-UAV attack planning and autonomous aerial refueling. As part of ongoing research, a modified F/A-18 aircraft was flown as a UAV, and successfully refueled in flight from a KC-135 tanker, a first in UAV history [24] .

(b) Target UAVs. Until now, target UAVs ranged from small and simple expendable systems resembling radio-controlled model airplanes to highly sophisticated, instrument simulators that were designed to be recovered after each mission. A significant growth area in target drones could be configuration intended to simulate new threats, such as supersonic anti-ship missiles. A new development in this area is the miniature air-launched decoy or MALD. This vehicle is being designed to drop from fighter aircraft and fly within range of enemy radar systems. While airborne, it could send electronic signals to simulate large aircraft, or even a group of aircraft, to spoof the enemy and entice their air defence to commit.

(c) Medium / High Altitude Endurance UAVs (MAE / HAE UAVs). Another development in the field of UAVs is aimed at medium and high altitude endurance UAVs for tactical and strategic tasks. The US Predator UAV, has a medium altitude, long endurance capability based on advanced concept technologies. The Global Hawk and Darkstar UAVs represent HAE UAV development programs in the US for the strategic reconnaissance role. These vehicles are using advanced concepts to give them a range in excess of 3000 nm, an endurance of more than 24 hours, and a high degree of stealth.

(d) Electronic Warfare (EW) UAVs. Most current EW UAVs are only capable of passive ESM due to their small size and limited electrical generating capability. New developments in this field are stealthy, long endurance ESM UAVs which would have the ability to get closer to enemy sources of emissions and thus pick up signals not accessible to manned systems or satellites. Additionally, while these passive UAVs could be used to locate communication facilities and threat emitters, newly designed active UAVs could carry out communication and radar jamming. The US Tier 2+ UAV will be the first active jammer. Due to its 2000 LB payload, SATCOM capability, moderate power generating capability, 30 - 40 hr endurance, onboard RWR to trigger a self-defence jammer, and decoys for enemy missiles, it would have the capability and survivability to penetrate dense defences, actively jam, spoof, and confuse enemy systems.

(e) Stealth UAVs. US military and aerospace officials contend that improved stealth technologies could make UAVs virtually invisible to radar, IR sensors, and the human eye. A highly classified project is currently underway at the Groom Lake development facility within the US to develop such a UAV. This vehicle is reported to be constructed of composite materials with a special next generation stealth coating to limit their visibility in at least two spectrums. The special coating represents a forerunner of the smart-skin concept and is activated by a 24 volt charge to help trigger visual and radar masking. The electrical charge attenuates radar by 40 - 50%. It also has properties that allow the skin colour to be changed to blend the aircraft into the sky or ground when viewed from below or above respectively. Further development of these stealthy UAVs will enable them to enter and operate in dense AD environment, thus answering one of the main questions about their employability and survivability.

(f) ‘Sense and Avoid’ Technology. A major aspect in using UAVs along with manned aircraft (both military and civilian) has been the inability of Air Traffic Controllers to detect the UAVs and manage the airspace. The U.S. Army has taken a step closer to making unmanned aircraft safe to fly in civilian airspace. They have validated the technology and capabilities of the Ground-Based Sense and Avoid System at Dugway Proving Grounds in Utah. A reliable sense and avoid system to prevent collisions or near misses between manned and unmanned aircraft would enable greater integration within the Army and Air Force and also help in paving the way for usage of UAVs by civilian agencies [25] .

(g) Airborne Communication Relay. Traditionally, communication relay has been considered a secondary task for UAVs deployed for recce and EW tasks. However, wit the introduction of light weight, robust and autonomous platforms, capable of being deployed from unprepared sites, UAVs can now perform this task close to the tactical units. Such a capability would greatly increase the expand communication links over rugged, mountainous and urban terrain, where terrestrial communication links are typically masked and screened. [26] 

(h) Supplement to Anti-Radiation Missiles (ARMs). France and Germany are examining UAV as possible carriers of ARMs. This new role for UAVs will make them very attractive since they can loiter for long period of time over enemy air defences, continuously posing a threat to any radar that is subsequently switched on.

(j) Supplement to Fighters. Future UAVs may undertake various roles of today’s high performance fighters and ground attack aircraft. A UAV can be manoeuvred far more violently than a manned aircraft, thereby making it harder to shoot down. Both AF scientists and pilots in the US concur that an aircraft capable of making 15-20g turns could out-manoeuvre most enemy missiles. Both the US and Israel are pioneers in this field and are examining the possibility of entrusting many a fighter mission to armed UAVs. Infact, current plans for the US development of both the F-22 air superiority fighter and the Joint Advanced Strike Fighter call for the final aircraft of the assembly line to be configured as UAVs.

(k) Automated Mission Planning & Conduct. One of the biggest problem plaguing UAVs today is the high loss rate due to human operator errors. A new development trend to overcome this problem is an automated mission planning system with an automated take-off and landing capability, which means that the UAV, equipped with a ground mapping radar to see through clouds could theoretically complete its entire mission from engine start to shut down in zero weather. There are also built-in safeguards to prevent operators from flying the RPV into the ground or beyond its fuel range. To combat the potential vehicle loss due to a failure of communication links, the UAV is pre-programmed to fly towards home during a loss of signal situation until it either re-establishes a valid communications link or executes an automatic landing at a pre-designated location.

(l) Uninhabited Combat / Recce Aerial Vehicle (UCAVs/URAVs). UCAVs and URAVs differ from current RPVs in that they will be able to perform well beyond current physical limits, thereby allowing them to out-manoeuvre many enemy missiles. Stealthy, high payload transport aircraft could carry scores of such vehicle and launch them near the target area to provide a responsive, intercontinental stand-off capability. Such vehicles with hypersonic performance could enable the controlling military force to be within range of selected high-value targets anywhere in the world within minutes.

(m) Civil Applications. Although UAVs are already used in small number to conduct environmental surveys, their roles in the civil environment are likely to increase. The Koreans are currently considering the use of UAVs to conduct crop spraying and several other countries are considering their use for border patrol. Other proposed civil uses of UAVs throughout the world include transporting sportpersons over traffic to their designated events, inspecting pipelines and/or remote power lines, telecasting sports events, conducting poacher surveillance, and monitoring traffic. However, several potential problems envisaged in these civil applications, such as invasion of privacy issues, illegal search and seizure issues, and conflicts with other air traffic, will have to be addressed before such applications can be practically developed and employed.

CHAPTER 5

CONSTRAINTS IN EMPLOYMENT OF UAVS AND UCAVS IN INDIAN CONTEXT

50. Indian Army has been engaged in conventional and non-conventional conflicts ever since its formal inception in 1947. Over the past few decades, warfare has undergone a critical change from trench warfare to the modern day 4GW. The military effectiveness of UAVs has been proved in all the recent conflicts and their employability in future wars cannot be ruled out. They will form an important part of any operation whether on land, sea or air. In the Indian context they may form a part of varied operations ranging from insurgency, surveillance of border and coast line, LICO to joint services conventional operations. However, before delving deeper into the likely roles that may be performed by the UAVs and UCAVs in Indian Armed Forces, we need to consider the various constraints in their employment in the Indian context and identify some basic requirements that need to be fulfilled for integrating the UAVs into the warfighting philosophy of the Indian army.

51. Constraints in Employment of UAVs. The various constraints in employment of UAVs and UCAVs in Indian context can be listed as under:-

(a) Political considerations. The increase use of drones points to a potential revolution in warfare, or at least a shift in the perspective of how wars will be fought in the future. As robotics expert P.W. Singer argues, "the introduction of unmanned systems to the battlefield doesn’t change simply how we fight, but for the first time changes who fights at the most fundamental level. It transforms the very agent of war, rather than just its capabilities." [27] Yet, these assertions have also been disapproved. Journalists challenge the claim that there are diminished civilian deaths from drone strikes, while just war scholars suggest that drones loosen the moral restraints on the use of force and legal scholars grapple with the relation between drones and international law. [28] These accusations have been putting a strain on a superpower like USA also. Increased usage of UAVs and UCAVs by India would also need its political masters to be ready to face these concerns. Before embarking on a programme to equip Indian Armed Forces with UAVs and UCAVs, India needs to finalise a doctrine for the usage of these Force Multipliers, while also deciding on its response to the above considerations.

(b) Budget constraints. In an age of decreasing defence budgets, costly manned aircrafts and the ever increasing cost of aircrew training, most of the modern armed forces around the world are realizing the need to employ UAVs for missions in the hostile dense AD environment. For example a Su 30 MKI aircraft costs $102 million each while the Searcher UAV being used by the IAF had cost $7.5 million each. Notwithstanding the big difference in the cost, the cost of UAVs also is large enough to strain the limited defence budget of India. This cost factor would limit the amount of UAVs and UCAVs we would be able to induct in the Indian Armed Forces.

(c) Lack of a joint command structure. UAV as an asset can be best utilised when its capabilities and resources are controlled centrally by a higher organisation. The inputs provided by the UAVs of all three services need to be collated and analysed at the highest level to build up the RASP( Recognised Air Space picture) which can then be used to coordinate the offensive and defensive actions at all levels. However for this to happen there is a need for a joint Command structure, to coordinate the procurement, training and operational roles of all UAVs being procured by the three services.

(d) Slow speed of development of new technologies by the defence PSU’s. Defence spending in India has grown at about 17 percent during 2007–10, and with this India has emerged as the largest arms importer in the world. By 2014, it is expected that India would become the third largest defence

spender after the US and China. Despite this huge market, the current policies and structure of the industry has constrained the domestic defence production with only 30 percent of the demand being met internally. [29] India has nine Defence Public Sector Undertakings(DPSUs) and thirty–nine Ordnance Factories. With an employee base of more than 1.8 lakh people, the size of the military–industrial workforce is similar to countries like UK and France which are among the largest producers of defence related products in the world. In spite of this large set–up, production output has remained insufficient to meet the growing needs. Also the success of DPSUs in developing new technology has been rather limited. For example, the Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE) was given the mandate of developing a UAV for the Indian Army in 1988. As a result the Nishant UAV was developed and made its first flight in 1999, a period of 11 years. [30] With such a long gestation period, it is very difficult for the country to think about developing its own line of sophisticated UAVs and UCAVs. Since the prospect of depending largely on foreign acquired UAVs, with inherent issues like compromising on security aspects and chances of supplies being stopped in a war like situation, is not a very comfortable one, it is imperative that necessary changes be made in the organisational setup and work culture of DPSUs so that we are capable of satiating our increasing demands indigenously.

52. Basic Requirements for Integration of UAVs. Although the idea of integrating UAVs and UCAVs into the Indian Armed Forces is been thought of in many quarters, there are some basic requirements that would need to be fulfilled before we can work towards integrating the UAVs into the warfighting philosophy of the Indian Armed Forces.

(a) Infrastructure. In addition to the need of providing operating bases and servicing installations, secure communication links and jam resistant data links are pre requisites for the effective integration of various UAV assets. This infrastructure would require careful foresight and planning by all three services.

(b) Manpower. UAVs may be able to collect millions of bits of data, but unless all data is collated, analysed and stored in a proper database, the effort of gathering the data would be a waste. Adequate numbers of photo interpreters would be required for the exponential increase in Photo Interpretation workload that would be a consequence of the use of UAVs for ISR in a big way.

(c) Air Space Management. The procedures for joint control of airspace would need to cater for operations of UAVs along with other aircraft in the TBA. With the proposed induction of Aerostats and AWACS into the IAF inventory, there would be a need for better integration between Army and Air Force AD setup.

(d) Endurance. An UAV can fly continuously for up to 12 hours, however like a normal aircraft it has to undergo various servicing schedules. Hence the rules of availability, as applicable to service aircraft, should be applied for them also.

(e) Support Services. The support services required for the operation and maintenance of a UAV fleet also have to be carefully thought of. The spare support too would be technologically intensive and with the lack of indigenous manufacturers, the cost of operations would be high. The indigenous research establishments and production houses should be motivated to take required steps to fulfil this lacuna.

CHAPTER 6

EMPLOYMENT OF UAVs AND UCAVs AS FORCE MULTIPLIER IN INDIAN CONTEXT

"Victory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war, not upon those who wait to adapt themselves after the changes occur. In this period of rapid transition from one form to another, those who daringly take to the new road first will enjoy the incalculable advantages of the new means of war over old."

Giulio Douhet

General

53. India faces myriad challenges and threats to its security in the present day world order. India has been engaged in a proxy war for the last several decades and has been combating terrorism perpetuated by militant and terrorist groups sponsored by external elements. It has also got not so friendly nations as its neighbours in the West and North. Add to it the necessity of ensuring integrity and sanctity of its airspace and vast maritime EEZ. It is in such a scenario that the Indian Armed Forces will be required to fulfil their roles in diverse operating conditions across the complete spectrum of conflict. With the rapid advancements in the field of UAVs and UCAVs, it is time that they are incorporated in the war fighting philosophy of the three services of the Indian Armed Forces.

Employment of UAVs by Indian Army in Conventional Operations.

54. Considerations at the strategic level while planning a campaign have greatly increased. The commanders try to achieve simultaneity by influencing the course of battles throughout the tactical zones as well as into enemy’s operational depth. Due to the progress in surveillance and communication means, of which UAVs is an important part, Operational and Army Commanders have finally found a way to overcome the problem. Therefore, UAVs would be required mainly for reconnaissance and Electronic Warfare tasks, more so in the light of depleting and over-tasked conventional reconnaissance aircraft. The major roles that can be fulfilled by UAVs in support of conventional army operations are covered in the following paragraphs.

55. Reconnaissance Requirements. The army requires intelligence from aerial reconnaissance essentially on three areas of information, knowledge of the ground, knowledge of enemy strength and knowledge of enemy deployment. These main pieces of intelligence are utilized in planning the various offensive and defensive operations as well as for planning special operations as well. The sensors used by the UAVs for this purpose include Sideways Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR), Synthetic Aperture Radar with Doppler beam sharpening (SAR), Forward looking Infra-Red (FLIR), Infra-Red Line Scan (IRLS) and optical cameras. The major objects of intelligence which can be provided by UAVs for use by the army are as under:-

(a) Location of Headquarters and troop concentration.

(b) Concentration of vehicles, especially armour.

(c) Administrative layout of locations, including dumps and explosives sites.

(d) Movement of forces.

(e) Logistic build up.

(f) Enemy Artillery and mortar positions, direction of own Artillery fire on enemy and Battle Damage Assessment.

(g) Positions of anti-tank guns.

(h) Digging and emplacements.

(j) Road blocks.

(k) Prepared defensive positions.

(l) Anti-air landing obstacles.

(m) Demolition of roads and railways.

(n) Inundation carried out by enemy or due to natural reasons.

(o) Terrain intelligence like:-

(i) Road classification.

(ii) Road density.

(iii) Natural obstacles.

(iv) Hydrographical characteristics of rivers and canal.

56. Electronic Warfare Tasks.

(a) ESM. Today the reconnaissance platform has to bring back as much information as possible on the enemy emitters, his radio stations, radars, electronic data link, and even mobile stations such a tanks or aircraft. This is called electronic intelligence for the radars and related devices and communication intelligence for simple radio messages. The task in each case calls for finding the enemy’s operating frequencies, recording the transmission and in almost all cases also plotting the location of the source by the time of arrival, direction of arrival or triangulation techniques if we are using several listening stations. The UAVs can be effectively used during peacetime to build up a database of known enemy emitters, with their location and electronic signatures, which can be used during hostilities to support own operations.

(b) ECM. UAV ECM is a tactic that utilises unmanned UAV as ECM support or precursors to assist strike aircraft or other strike vehicles in penetrating AD radar and missile defended target areas by jamming, ejecting chaff, dropping expendable jammers or decoys, acting as decoy themselves and performing other ECM related tasks. UAVs carrying EW equipment will increase the probability of a successful attack by own Air Force.

57. Other Tasks.

(a) Psychological Operations. UAVs can be utilised as a platform for radio and television broadcasts as well as to drop pamphlets and leaflets over enemy area to persuade enemy troops and population to join our cause.

(b) Precision Strikes. UAVs can be employed to strike HVTs like command and control centres without the risk of losing own aircrafts.

(c) Combat Search And Rescue. UAVs can be employed to search hostile area for downed aircrew, stranded soldiers and ships so as to plan and enable their safe recovery.

(d) Employment In Space Warfare. High altitude and long endurance UAVs can serve the role of Low Orbit Satellite, employing Directed Energy Weapons (DEW) to destroy sensitive electronic equipment, communication networks and satellites.

(e) Bomb Damage Assessment. UAVs can be utilised for assessment of real-time destruction of target to enable commanders to plan reengagement.

(f) UAV assisted Fire Support. The UAVs could be used to assist in Direction Of Own Arty Fire(DOOAF) and thus provide a safe and suitable alternative to Air Observation Posts(AOPs). The UAVs may also be used to assist in engagement of tgts by laser designation for employment of Precision Guided Munitions(PGM).

(g) Deception Operations. The Israelis made use of Radar Cross Section(RCS) enhancers on its UAVs to deceive the Syrians during the Bekaa valley operations. Such measures can be employed to deceive the enemy and make him open up his radars, divert their Combat Air Patrol (CAP) and waste their Air Defence (AD) weapons.

(h) Alternative Communication Network. The UAVs can serve as a relay for communication and data links in remote regions or in shadow areas. They could also serve as an alternative communication network over long ranges in case of failure of main systems.

Employment of UAVs by Indian Navy

58. India is located at the base of continental Asia with a coastline of 7516 km. The sea area around India is among the busiest in the world, with over 100,000 ships transiting the shipping lanes every year. The peninsular projection of country into the Indian Ocean and the island territories of Andaman and Nicobar give India a stake in the stability and security of these waters. Peace time surveillance of India’s coastline is of considerable importance not only from the security view point but also for protection of natural resources and preservation of marine environment. The effective surveillance of the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) however involves a vast area and is a highly daunting task due to the limited resources and capabilities of the Coast Guard and the Navy. Surveillance by manned platforms in itself is not just resource intensive but also exorbitantly costly and strenuous for the aircrew. For effective and gap free surveillance of large area there is a requirement of employing combination of various types of UAVs including MALE and HALE BAMS(Broad area Maritime Surveillance) along with specialised UAVs as Vertical Take-Off UAV (VTUAV). UAVs in conjunction with manned aircraft could be assigned the following tasks in support of maritime operations:-

Peace Time Operations.

(i) Persistent Surveillance of the country’s coastline.

(ii) Prevent penetration of any sea borne intruder.

(iii) Protect the country’s rights and interests in the EEZ.

(iv) Support Search and Rescue missions.

(v) Tracking of suspect vessels.

(vi) Enhance the surveillance cover of own ships involved in Anti-Piracy operations.

(vii) Assist in hydrographic mapping of the coastline.

(b) War Time Operations.

(i) Over the horizon targeting operations with long range anti-ship missiles.

(ii) Electronic warfare missions for ship's self-protection.

(iii) Command and control against air attacks.

(iv) Reconnaissance of Sea Lines of Communications.

(v) Ship observation and identification.

(vi) Anti-missile decoy.

(vii) Photo reconnaissance.

(viii) Destroy en naval assets using UCAVs.

(ix) Anti-Submarine Warfare(ASW).

(x) Support littoral warfare by providing surveillance cover, reconnaissance of the shore characteristics and measuring the depth of the water.

Employment of UAVs by Indian Air Force.

59. The employment of UAVs by the Israeli Air Force and the US Air Force in various campaigns has highlighted the Force Multiplier advantage that can be gained by their integration in air campaigns. Intelligence gained from air reconnaissance can be utilized by the Air Force for various tasks such as monitoring ground activity and locating high value armour, army forces and resupply activity. Information regarding enemy air assets can be easily given by the UAV without endangering costly aircraft and pilots. The information which is provided by these UAV missions can be transferred in real time to strike aircraft and attack helicopters to guide them onto their targets. Their possible future contributions in various air operations are described below: -

(a) COUNTER AIR OPERATIONS. With the development of armed UAVs and rapidly developing UCAVs their role in Counter Air Operations (CAO) will only increase. Predator and Reaper UAVs have become the basis of development of combat UAVs which may be likely replacement of fighters. UCAVs like X-47, MiG SKAT, nEUROn and Boeing’s Phantom Ray are being developed with matching potentials of a fighter ac. Once as capable as fighters these UCAVs will start contributing equally to CAO. Concepts like airborne AD radar on board UAVs is under trial and once established they will take Air Defence/ Defensive Counter Air campaign to new levels.

(b) COUNTER SURFACE FORCE OPERATIONS. Employment and success of UAVs commenced with their invaluable contributions in Tactical Recce. Tactical Battle Area (TBA) is a very lethal environment where weapons of all calibres are deployed by both sides. One of the primary purposes for the employment of UAVs is reducing the risk to human life in high threat environments. With rapid advancement of sensor technology most of the tactical recce is now UAV based. The real time high quality motion video and imageries provide battlefield transparency which was unimaginable few years back. Armed UAVs like Predator and Reaper have high payload carriage capability (Reaper UAV can carry up to 14 missiles). These can now be employed for Air Interdiction, Battle Field Interdiction and Battlefield Air Strikes. UCAVs and armed UAVs by virtue of their inherent long endurance and precision capability can be used to carry out Search and Strike missions against targets of opportunity in conditions of air superiority. Time Sensitive and Dynamic Targeting can thus be best achieved by these high endurance combat machines.

(c) COMBAT SUPPORT OPERATIONS. On 17 December 2011, a U.S. Marine Corps K-Max helicopter UAV [31] in Afghanistan made its first combat supply delivery, bringing 1.5 tons of food and other items to a combat outpost. This mission took 90 minutes. This capability can be utilised to air maintain remote outposts in inaccessible border areas without being detected or endangering human life to enemy fire. Israel’s project of Air Mule being planned to be utilised as platform for Casualty Evacuation is another challenge to manned platforms. UAVs ability to contribute in Electronic Warfare by means of ELINT and COMINT also makes them a better choice vis-à-vis manned EW platforms which are more vulnerable to enemy action. Their inherent long endurance and real time data linking ensures availability of EW platform for a long time and data safety. All this also ensures higher battlefield transparency thereby, minimising decision dilemma for commanders in the battle. With the integrated employment of the UAVs/ UCAVs with manned fighters, these are potent enablers in future air battles in the most