Motivation For Adoption Of Egovernance

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

2.1 Introduction

Despite a tremendous growth of the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) worldwide, its adoption and implementation in developing countries started in 1990s (Grönlund et al., 2004). Today the world is witnessing the proliferation of ICTs deployment in the public sectors aiming at the restructuring and replacing the traditional governance systems through the "electronic governance" (e-governance).This global trend has evoked interests to researchers to explore issues surrounding the topics of e-governance or electronic government (e-government) from a wide range of disciplines such as sociology, public administration, commerce and information technology, to mention a few. This interest has resulted into the existence of copious literature focusing on the main aspects of the online public service delivery.

The ‘e-governance’ entails the utilization of ICTs within the government institutions, including higher education institutions (HEIs) "for the purpose of enhancing operational efficiency and effectiveness of such institutions so as to meet the users’ needs and service delivery" (Chen et al., 2009). Codagnone (2008:10) defines ‘efficiency’ as "the output/input ratio, which can be improved in two ways: input efficiency which targets to maintain the output level but decrease the input needed (same for less) and output efficiency which aims to maintain the input level but increase the output produced (more with the same)". Perry et al (1983) argue that, "efficiency is to be reached by improving the input to output ratio, thus reducing unit costs, decreasing staff if appropriate, and adopting new methods of working".

Today, the scope of e-governance services extends from normal acquisition of government information on websites to the provision and processing online users’ requests such as electronic application for admission into HEIs, electronic payments of different user fees, electronic purchasing, electronic transactions in the banking sector (e.g SIM Banking, Internet Banking, M-Pesa, etc.), to mention some. Rationally, Moon (2002) state that, "most governments decided to go online for the purpose of putting together services focused on users’ needs, delivering and tailoring information and services, connecting communities and businesses locally and globally, offering flexible and convenient access to public information and services with the view of providing citizens an improved service and reforming public institutions towards digital culture".

This chapter firstly, begins with a brief history on new technology and the emergence of e-governance in the government and it proceeds by reviewing various perspectives and definitions of e-governance. Secondly, it describes the e-governance implementation practice by presenting a comprehensive overview focusing on developed and developing countries including the e-governance in Tanzania. It continues with a brief synopsis of the on-going enrolment trend in HEIs and the need for electronic admission system. Finally, the chapter ends up by outlining the main benefits and challenges (barriers) related to e-governance implementation in the public sector.

Brief history on new technology and the emergence of e-governance

The literature show that, computers started to appear in government institutions between the 1960s and the 1970s (Olufemi, 2012:123). However, the remarkable increase of ICTs in the government organizations appeared during the 1980s and 1990s (Fang, 2002:2). During this period the apparent revolution was the introduction of government websites which marked the beginning of e-governance. As noted by Eid et al (2009:528), "initially, most of these websites were populated by various information for the public access". Later, these websites were improved and laid a foundation for government organizations to shift towards online transactions, particularly electronic service delivery. With the same purpose, to-date, many contemporary organizations, including many higher education institutions (HEIs) are interacting with their clients online hence improving efficiency and effectiveness of service delivery.

The ICT growth has increased impetus for most governments globally to go online especially in the area of public service delivery to its citizens, thus changing the process of governing from manual to e-governance. ICTs have brought about an epoch in governance history that has been described using labels such as ‘digital government’, ‘online government’, ‘e-governance’, ‘e-government’ or ‘transformational government’. Originating from India in 1970s; (as in-house government applications in the areas of defense, economic monitoring, planning and the deployment of information technology to manage data intensive functions related to elections, census, tax administration, etc.) globally, the term "e-governance" emerged and gathered momentum in the late 1990s in public organizations (Fang, 2002:2). Olufemi (2012: 124) upholds that, "the e-governance concept originated at the beginning of 21stcentury, mostly as a copy of electronic commerce into public sector".

The contextual view of the e-governance concept was directed towards the presence of the public services on the Internet (government online). It was born out of the Internet boom and it is not limited to Internet use or publicly accessible systems for direct use by customers or citizens. According to Saxena (2005), "the e-governance evolved as an information-age model of governance that seeks to realize the processes and structures for harnessing the potentialities of information and communication technologies in improving the efficiency, effectiveness, operations, service delivery and accountability of government".

Perspectives of E-governance

Based on an assessment of the literature, the e-governance can be explored from six perspectives: firstly, the technology perspective; secondly, the public administration perspective; thirdly, the knowledge management perspective; fourthly, the transformation perspective; fifthly, the sociological perspective; and lastly the legal-political-economic perspective. A perspective in this case refers to a potential starting point and/ or the discipline emphasized within the context of a specific study, but does not imply nor advocate a purist, single-discipline approach to e-governance (Pablo et al., n.d: 290).

This study adopted the sociological perspective with the intention of analysing the phenomenon of e-governance in HIEs (CAS implementation in this case) in light of how it influences and is influenced by the contexts in which it is implemented including social and technical issues surrounding the expectations of social entities (individuals, groups and institutions). The e-governance is drawn from the sociological dimension based on the social concerns vis-à-vis technology (to-date the field is known as "social informatics", which is defined as "the field that examines the development, use and consequences of information technologies in social and institutional contexts") (Kling, 1999). In sociology, the e-governance research lies on the social experiences that human beings are getting with the use of new technologies.

The government reform in the provision of e-governance services to citizens can well be understood through the social constructivism approach. As argued by Sreekumar (2007:2) that "social constructivism provides some provisional but meaningful theoretical foundations to look at e-governance in non-essentialist terms". According to Sreekumar, "one of the important conceptual endeavors from the constructivist perspective in understanding e-governance initiatives would be to disaggregate the question of technology from the differential perspective of the dominant and subordinate subject positions of the actors involved". The actors in this context entail users, implementers and all beneficiaries of the newly introduced technology. These actors are pivotal for the successful implementation of e-governance.

Literature show that, most studies of e‐government are biased to the ‘technical’ approach while neglecting the value‐laden nature of social reality and a social science approach (Bekkers et al., 2012:2). Weber’s emphasis on the mission of the social sciences as the study of social actions is fundamental in understanding the institutional relationship between actors in e-governance implementation. The actors according to Weber may constitute a group or an organization and may be entirely unknown as individuals (Weber, 1977:53). The actors’ social actions may be instrumentally rational - they can be seen as ‘conditions’or‘means’for attaining specific ends that are being pursued by an actor. For instance, the development of e-governance system [such as CAS] can be analyzed as the outcome of social actions as argued by Bekkers et al (2012) that "the development of web portal creates a complex network of actions and reactions, in which not only the goals and means are being discussed, but also the inherent values that lay behind these goals and lay behind these technologies". It is because of this reason Kling (1987) defines computerization as "an on-going social and political process; while on the other hand, Meijer et al (2006) connotes e-government as "an institutional innovation".

The on-going growth of technologies has raised interest to sociologists to understand the way governments adopt, deploy and implement new technologies in the public sectors. The main attention of sociologists is the on-going application of technology and its impact on processes of social change. As noted by Peacey (2002:2) that "sociologists do believe that, changes in technology were at the heart of the Industrial Revolution, a monumental set of developments that changed the face of society in the 19th century". Moreover, the sociologists have raised concern regarding the growth of new technologies, its application in the public sector and the on-going influences particularly on the way work is organized and managed. Smith et al., (1995:99) argue that, "the integration of technology and the way work is designed, organized, and managed have not always been smooth, as there has often been lags between the application of workplace automation and workplace design to accommodate the new technology and workforce needs".

It has become evident that, since 1990s new technologies (personal computers, the internet, and mobile phones) are fundamentally changing peoples’ everyday social lives and the governance system both in the private and public sectors. These technological progresses are contributing to momentous changes in society, where various functions of contemporary institutions extremely depend on, particularly in the field of public service delivery.

Definitions of e-governance

The term "e-governance" has gained more attention by scholars and researchers and is continuously getting different contextual definitions, where the main concern is the explanation on how the government interacts with the public. Diverse governments and organizations define this term to suit their own aims and objectives. Holden et al. (2003) argue that "there is no clear consensus about the concept of e-governance; however, there are some common elements between definitions".

According to the Council of Europe, ‘e-governance’ covers the use of electronic technologies in three main areas of public activities, which include: relations between the public authorities and civil society; functioning of the public authorities at all stages of the democratic process (electronic democracy); and the provision of public services (electronic public services) (Council of Europe, http://www.coe.int/T/E/Com/Files/Themes/e-voting/definition.asp). In explaining what real entails the e-governance, Dawes (2008:86) asserts that "e-governance comprises the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) to support public services, government administration, democratic processes, and relationships among citizens, civil society, the private sector, and the state". The ideas of Dawes have been supported by Ngwenya (2012:657) who vows that "an effective e-government involves rethinking organizations and processes, and changing behaviour so that public services are delivered more efficiently to the people who need to use them".

Misuraca (2007: xvii) on the other hand, views e-governance as the capacity of ICTs to harness changes, looking not only at the increasing use of ICTs as a technological tool for delivering services online and improving the efficiency of administrations, but as a new paradigm for opening up government services to citizens, thereby increasing transparency and participation, and making government more responsive and centred upon citizen’s needs. In the African context, a working definition, according to Misuraca (2007:29), is the one offered by the African Training and Research Centre in Administration for Development (ATRCAD). The ATRCAD defines e-governance as "the use of ICTs, especially Internet to adopt a new conception and attitude of governing and managing where participation and efficiency are required of all the partners linked to network: e-governance is therefore a new way of coordinating, planning, formulating and implementing decisions and operations related to governance problems. Governments can utilize e-governance to re-invent themselves, get closer to the citizenry and forge closer alliances and partnerships with diverse communities of interest, practice, expertise, conviction and interdependence within the context of national and international development agendas".

In the context of new public sector reforms, "e-governance" is defined as the use of ICTs in improving government procedures and processes and the linkage between government, citizens, and other groups in governance to promote a more active and participatory political deliberation and decision making (Siar, 2005:136). Backus (2001) on the other hand sustains that, "e-governance is the application of ICTs in refining and strengthening the interaction between government and citizens (G2C); and government, business and other groups (G2B), as well as improving internal government processes (G2G) to streamline and improve public administration". In other words, the implementation of e-governance involves the interaction of a governmental agency (G) with outside citizens (C), businesses (B), and or other governmental agencies (G) themselves.

For the purpose of this study, "e-governance" refers to the utilization of ICTs within the admission service delivery domain (particularly in the admission processes and procedures) aimed to coordinate and deliver higher education admission services and promote timely communication and collaboration different stakeholders like HEIs, students, regulators and other citizens. Online admission, electronic payments and electronic registration are some of the applications of e-governance services in HEIs admission services. Through CAS, stakeholders are able to interact effectively and conveniently. Therefore, the term interaction in this milieu stands for the delivery of higher education admission services, exchange of admission information, communication, transactions and systems integration.

2.3.2Motivation for adoption of E-governance

Many studies (Barua, 2012; Ramakrishnan, 2012; Mahadeo, 2009; Colesca et al., 2008; Raoufi, 2005) have revealed diverse motives that drive government agencies to adopt and implement e-governance. Of all, the sociological, economic, political, technological and managerial reasons appear to be dominant. Socially, the impetus of e-governance adoption is largely based on better delivery of government services in different sectors like education, health, banking, agriculture, etc. thus making the stakeholders access the services anywhere at any time. Contrary to conformist approach, the installation of e-governance in the government agencies is seen as a gateway for information exchange; a platform through which decisions can be made (Bwalya, 2009:2) and makes possible to deliver social services to the public at the fingertips.

Dada (2006:1) argues that "… e-government is not merely the computerisation of a government system, but a belief in the ability of technology to achieve high levels of improvement in various areas of government, thus transforming the relations between governments and citizens". Through this belief, many public agencies assume that by automating public services it is possible to intensify peoples’ demand and choice, reduce the cost for public service delivery and improve the functioning of government systems. Rajalekshmi (2008: 20) affirms that "… introduction of e-governance projects aims at improving the efficiency and effectiveness of public services … (i.e. using ICTs to improve the delivery of routine services to citizens)". In this study, e-governance services imply electronic admission services (e-admission services) which include the online registration, online programme selection, online admission fee payments, online admission information access and online feedback of admission results. Therefore, the utilization of ICTs in the area of admission service delivery is fundamental to the modern HEIs in ensuring that a wide range of admission related services are delivered in a manner that is timely, efficient, economic, equitable, transparent and corruption-free.

Heeks (1999) elucidates that, ICTs are capable in helping government institutions to reinvent their governance systems and run their activities cheaply, faster, better and consequently produce new results. These benefits compel most countries all over the world to implement e-governance devotedly. Additionally, Moon (2002) contends that "e-governance paradigm emphasises internal and external collaboration by setting a full range of services that most government agencies provide online for people so that the services can easily be reached and accessed by the citizens".

E-governance Implementation Practice: Global Perspectives

Studies have identified various factors that lead to successful e-governance implementation. Some of the factors drawn from the studies of developed countries include: changes in work/business process (Sharifi and Zarei, 2004), technologies (OECD, 2004), human resources (Sharma, 2007), organizational culture/values (Moon and Norris, 2005), vision/strategies/internal leadership (Ke and Wei, 2004), laws/regulations/policies (Gil-García and Pardo, 2005), financial resources (Ho, 2002; Moon, 2002) and external pressure (Ho and Ni, 2004) as cited in Shin et al. (2008:5). While these studies provide practical recommendations to those involved in e-governance implementation (OECD, 2003; Odendaal, 2003; Heeks et al., 2007), their findings are based on experiences and observations in developed countries, and particularly in local governments. Hence, they are of partial use in developing countries.

Some researchers such as Baker and Bellordre (2004) have addressed the lack of awareness of a given technology and its benefits to be the primary concern associated with the adoption and implementation of ICTs in the public sector. They argue that, "in order for ordinary citizens to recognize the value of the new technology, its potential utility must be known". Furthermore, AlAwadhi (2009:585) clarifies by saying "in order for ordinary citizens to recognize the value of the new technology, its potential utility must be known. The lack of familiarity with IT is simply another awareness barrier; while lack of familiarity with a range of technologies is evident in various groups of people, such as the economically disadvantaged, (some) persons with disabilities and individuals from a culture that is resistant to change".

As noted by Al-Shehry (2011) that "e-government represents a fundamental change and therefore, resistance to change from some stakeholders is possible". Wargin et al (2001) have earmarked various reasons for such resistance to change, including, "lack of ICT skills to use the new technologies; lack of people’s understanding for the ‘whole picture’ and application of new technologies; thus resulting to a redefinition of the organizational structures and distribution of power". As point out by Dent et al (1999) that in reality "… individuals are not resisting the change itself, but rather they may be defending themselves against the loss of pay, loss of status, and or loss of comfort". Nevertheless, Kotter (1995) argues that several models are in place which can address problems linked to change, such as Kotter’s eight-step model for transforming organizations. The same has been proposed by Jick (1991) who comes up with ten-step model for implementing change.

In criticizing the prevalence of technological determinism, Guanghua (2009:1-2) and Avergou (2001) show that through the social study of e-governance the ICTs are complex social systems, which entail various social, political, economic and institutional factors as well as people’s issues besides technical ones. Moreover, Guanghua (2009:1) expounds that, "the introduction of ICTs into public sector is not only a technical issue but also a social one in that many factors are involved, such as politics, economy, organization, culture, population and so on; hence compelling one to study e-governance in a broader social context… With such complexity makes e-governance implementation to be more complicated however, "it provides opportunities for the government to reconsider how to deliver better public services and in what way to tailor users’ needs". To Fountain (2001), a fully developed e-governance is the co-evolvement of the above institutions.

In Tanzania, for example, the successful implementation of CAS seem to be more challenging due to fundamental obstacles, such as the autonomous nature of HEIs and the centralization of admission services. This is because admission service was one of the major sources of income accrued from admission fees in higher education institutions (HEIs). Moreover, while these findings from the studies on developed countries are useful, they also reveal that the determinants of successful e-governance vary depending on the environment of each country. Schuppan (2009) shows that the demographic and sociological factors (age, gender, education, income distribution, language diversity and percentage of population living in rural areas) are critical in the implementation and use of online services in sub-Saharan Africa.

2.4.1 E-Governance in Developing Countries

The aim to deliver public services electronically seems to hold a fast momentum in most of developing countries since many public agencies are currently escalating the application of ICT in governance systems. This has been observed by Ndou (2004:1) who says: "…recently the public sector has come to recognize the potential importance of ICT … as a means of improving the quality and responsiveness of the services they provide to their citizens, expanding the reach and accessibility of their services and public infrastructure and allowing citizens to experience a faster and more transparent form of access to government services". This initiative is increasingly shaping the global governments’ internal governance systems as noted by Navarra and Cornford (2006:1) who assert that, "across the developed and developing world, the internal organization of the state is being reconfigured in an operative matrix of government activity supported by the deployment of ICTs".

Priority for many developing countries to adopt and implement e-governance in the public sector is due to the fact that, it offers the chance to "leapfrog" stages of traditional development (Rajalekshmi, 2007:19). However, the e-governance adoption is always shaped by the type of implementing agency which dictates the type of service(s) to be automated or put online. For example, in education sector there are such electronic services like online admission, electronic library, electronic learning, online examinations, students and staff records, online journal subscription, electronic document delivery, etc.

2.4.2 E-Governance in Higher Education Context

In higher education milieu, the implementation of e-governance has various benefits as advocated by Falabi (2007:251-252):

In implementing e-governance, many private investors and service providers show willingness to establish partnerships (public-private partnerships) with implementing agency;

Increased transparency and merit-based student admission, where the rich and the poor have equal chances of being admitted, thus avoiding "man-know-man" basis.

Less corruption and accountability. Through electronic payment (e-payment) students can pay their school and examination fees directly to the bank (tellers) and scratch cards.

Service delivery cost reduction. Money spent on manual-paper works and photocopies can be saved after going online.

There is a benefit of building trust between parents and the institutions;

Increased computer literacy. This merit is concerned with the officers, clerks, students (applicants) and even parents and guardians.

Improved staff/students interactions; and

Finally, it leads to easier access to higher education information.

Issues in E-governance Implementation Practices

There are many sociological concerns towards the e-governance adoption and implementation in the public sector. Carter et al (2004) argue that "e-governance adoption is more than a technological matter as it is influenced by many factors including institutional; human; social and cultural issues which are important forces as they relate to the nature of government itself and its responsibility in the society". The interactive nature of e-governance services between implementing institutions, citizens and or businesses (private institutions) has raised a sociological concern which compelled the researcher to understand the socio-technical challenges of e-governance implementation; issues related to e-governance and work organization; e-governance and institutional relations; and quality and efficiency of e-governance services in the context of new technologies in public organizations.

2.5.1 Socio-technical challenges of e-governance implementation

The challenges of e-governance implementation are many and vary from country to country and from one type of e-governance to the other. However, few of them are universal with comparatively few variations. Focusing on the socio-technical challenges it can be noted that, among the primary problems in e-governance implementation as shown by Ndou (2004) and Jaeger et al., (2003) are the insufficient technological basic information in most parts of the world and existing disparity of technological quality between developed and developing countries. Other challenges include a shortage of IT skills and knowledge in the implementation of e-governance and lack of standards for IT (Norris, 2001). Furthermore, Backus (2001) points out that "the costs of internet usage in many countries still remains too high for a majority of the people and these people regard internet usage as a luxury they can’t afford"; thus limiting the number of people who opt to go online. On top of that Kumar et al (2007) mention societal issues such as job loss, lack of opportunities to socialize and the development of a lazy society to be among the challenges of e-governance implementation.

2.5.2 E-governance and Work Organization

ICTs play a crucial transformative role of work organization and culture. This is evident with the introduction of e-governance in the government institutions which, in fact, has brought about a revolution in the way work is transacted in the offices. In this transition the nature of organizations, work and governance is changing as well. Because of this scenario, workers now have to be constantly learning new skills in order to successfully solve problems in the new complex, information-based, rapidly changing work and organizational environment.

Researchers (Liker., Haddad., & Karlin,1999) state that, "technology’s impact on work is contingent on a broad set of factors, including the reasons for its introduction, management philosophy, the labor-management contract, the degree of a shared agreement about technology and work organization, and the process of technology development and implementation". In the past, technology was perceived as a deterministic causal force with foreseeable impacts. However, nowadays it has been recognized that technology complexity and its relationship to work is both bi-directional and dependent on a number of contingent factors. Liker et al. (1999) agree that, one set of factors which is integral to the impact of technology is the dynamics of the change process and outcomes which are inseparably linked. Adding to that, Paul Miller says, "… it is the digital in the workplace that now defines and shapes our working lives …" (http://digitalworkplacebook.com/).

There is wide-ranging discussion of the impact of technology on employment, work organization and society (Jacobi et al., 1986; Heap et al., 1995). Liker, et al. (1999) argue that the impact of new technology on work is contingent on a broad set of factors, including the reasons for its introduction, management philosophy, the labour-management contract, the degree of a shared agreement about technology and work organization, and the process of technology development and implementation. In their study, Diaz et al. (2012:507) found that technology acts as a ‘double-edged’ sword with both advantages and liabilities for employees. Wood (1989) show that new technology has brought a new diversity of tasks and new types of worker competency; meanwhile, it has transformed relations between workers and management as a result of the general transformation of working activities, skills and areas of competence. It has been pointed out that technological change has more to do with the exercise of control over workforce than it has to do with increasing productivity (Oparin, 1961 cited in Levidow et al. 1981). According to Levidow et al (1981) the scientific management at the workplace is used to reduce the human being to a blind unthinking appendage to the machine by integrating him or her into the system as an operating unit.

Francis et al. (1989) revealed that the introduction of new technology led to various modifications in work and working conditions, qualifications and wages. The study by Jacobi et al. (1980:99) found that, despite the negative impacts of new technology on work arrangements, labour remain a pervasive though increasingly marginal factor, with groups of direct workers installed at various technological interfaces to provide the human attributes of skills and flexibility. However, while it is true that computer-based automation continues to displace human labour and its expertise (a process that has come to be known as deskilling), the power of ICT simultaneously creates pressure for a profound re-skilling (Shoshana, 1989 cited in Greenbaum 2004:72).

E-governance and institutional relations

The context of e-governance implementation is complex and entails diverse stakeholders as argued by Shin et al (2008) who expound that, "e-governance is a complex socio-technical system in which heterogeneous stakeholders are interactively entangled to achieve their best interests". Peters et al., (2004:481) on the other hand claim that, "the existence of more than one governmental layer and occurring interaction between these layers is one of the complicating factors in implementing e-governance in the context of multi-stakeholders". This is one of the crucial issues in understanding e-governance implementation and institutional relations.

The institutional relations in the context of e-governance (CAS for this purpose) implementation focuses attention on the internal workings and existing relational shift after the introduction of new technology which handles most, if not all admission activities which were formally done in HEIs. It draws out the role of the widely shared, regularized patterns of professionalism of admission officers and other HEIs officials working within institutionalized admission roles and settings. The study of e-governance, using an institutional perspective as argued by Fountain (2007:4) provides an opportunity to observe the collision of stable practices and traditions with technological innovations.

The argument given by Tan et al (2003) show that, a continuous institutional transformation is becoming a common experience in the public sectors which are rapidly embracing new information technologies (IT) to restructure and re-invent their old-fashioned operations. Greenbaum (2004:68), however, cautions that when organizational issues like job redesign and workflow restructuring are not properly managed, organizational costs can be higher than the productivity gains expected from new technology. Bhatnagar et al. (1992:35) also note the possibility of conflicts occurring within the hierarchical structure of organizations.

Furthermore, Weber (1977) points out that "the added value of the social science perspective is that social phenomena, like the content and shaping of e-governance, can be understood by looking at the contingent and meaningful interactions between actors, their actions, and the rules that guide these actions and interactions". The same applies to e-governance as noted by Kling (1987) who observed that "a technological and social intervention involves many potential choices, about what kinds of technologies are used, how they are organized and supported, how people work with them and how they alter the character of work life at all. According to Kling, "in order to understand these choices we need to understand the social character of the relations between the involved actors, the kind of technological and social infrastructure that is needed to support e-governance and the historical commitment that these actors have to each other in relation to the development, adoption and implementation of e-government". Bekkers (2007) on the other hand puts it clear that "the governance challenge which emerges from this view refers to the creation of arrangements that facilitate collective action in a network of different but often interdependent stakeholders".

The interactive nature of ICTs implementation facilitates information processing, communication and networking and thus, facilitates relations and transactions between institutions. Through e-governance, it is argued that increasing linkages are established hence bringing about interdependencies and enhance inter‐organizational influence and control. (http://link.wits.ac.za/journal/AJIC-Call-for-Papers.pdf). In implementing CAS in HEIs, it is assumed that while reducing manual work of the employees, CAS may impose a work-place restructuring that eliminates the routine jobs of those who used to work in admission departments.

Quality and efficiency of e-governance services

Benefits of e-governance

There is no doubt that e-governance benefits are unquestionable since deployment of ICTs in the government institutions do serve a variety of ends, including better delivery of public services, improved institutional relations (government interactions with citizens, business and industry), citizen empowerment by accessing information and participation in decision-making. Taking example from US, Warkentin et al (2002:158) show that, through web access, taxpayers are able to make all transactions online, thus reducing spending on printing, sorting, and mailing tax materials and consequently, helping Internal Revenue Service (IRS) to save millions of dollars annually. The key benefits of e-governance services according to Damodaran et al (2005:2-3) are: wider participation/reduced social exclusion; improvements in information sharing between services and agencies (institutions); greater variety, choice and convenience of access for customers; and improved speed and efficiency of the processes which underpin services.

Various researchers (Al-Kibsi et al.,2001; Fang 2002; Relyea 2002; Cook et al. 2002; Jaeger 2003; Carbo et al., 2004) assert that the adoption of ICTs into e-governance in the public institutions provides massive promises and wide potentials for public agencies to improve services delivery; increase accessibility by providing services 24/7; increasing efficiency through streamlining business processes; improving internal communication; meeting citizens’ expectations; promoting safety and security, trust, transparency and accountability; improving communication and partnership within government agencies and with private sector; connect with citizens in language they can understand and reform the public sector; improve knowledge and information sharing, etc.

Other scholars like Abanumy et al (2003) and Prattipati (2003) contend that e-governance services ensure the reduction of distance and time (from in-line to on-line), cost saving, new efficient electronic payment methods, improvement of poor governance and transparency in governments’ operations, and lastly reduce systemic corruption. Generally, literature show that the majority of the e-governance benefits revolve around the effectiveness of ICTs in reducing costs and increasing efficiency and effectiveness of the government operations (Riley, 2003:52) as well as improving the relationships between citizens with their government. As clarified by Bertot et al (2008:137) that, "efficient and effective e-government suggests that governments will gain economies of scale, reduce costs, and provide technology-enabled user services".

Furthermore, in commenting on the benefits of e-governance, some researchers like Ho (2002) and Chen et al (2001) view e-governance as a potential and powerful system in transforming the traditional functions of the governments from departmentalized bureaucracy to vivacious, customer-centred web which ensures the provision of timely services with related functions at a single point.

E-Governance in Tanzania: An Overview

Like many other developing countries, Tanzania has been promoting and inducing pivotal changes by developing proper framework towards e-governance applications in the public sectors. A remarkable take off started with the Civil Service (1993) and the Local Government Reform Programmes of 1996 (Petroni et al., 2005:146). This was later followed by the Public Service Reform Programme (PSRP) in 2000 which was officially launched by the former President Benjamin Mkapa in Dar es Salaam (New Utumishi Journal, 2000:4). The PSRP was planned to be implemented in three phases, namely: installing performance management systems (2000-2004), instituting a performance culture (2005-2008) and instituting quality improvement circles (2009-2011). However, the adoption and implementation of e-governance in the country did not receive as much focus. Despite the lagging behind in e-governance, the country implemented several initiatives since 1990s to-date. Such initiatives include: Ministry of Land (Land Management System – MOLIS; Ministry of Finance (Financial Management System) – IFIMS; Human Capital Information Systems – HCMIS; and Parliament office (Parliament Online Information Systems – POLIS. All these and many others have laid down legal and policy framework within which practical and effective e-governance activities are being pursued.

Recently, the government has set up the e-Government agency (eGA) which was established on 1st April 2012 under the Executive Agencies Act, Cap. 245 of 2010 as a semi-autonomous institution mandated for coordination, oversight and provision of e-Government initiatives and enforcement of e-Government standards to Tanzania Ministries, Departments, Agencies and Local Government Authorities. The eGA was formed as part of the implementation of the Cabinet decisions of 2004 and Tanzania Presidential Instrument Government Notice No. 51 of 17/12/2010 which mandated the President’s Office Public Service Management (PO-PSM) to establish a focal point which will foresee the coordination of the existing fragmented and isolated e-Government initiatives in Tanzania. Principally, eGA facilitates other Government institutions to use modern ICTs for managerial and administrative purposes, provide access to information and improved services to the public (http://www.ega.go.tz/e/en/introduction). With the coming of the Seacom and Eassy fibre optic cables to East Africa, the Tanzania government has kept pace towards the deployment of ICTs in the public sector to improve service delivery (http://allafrica.com/stories/200906291139.html).

2.6.1 E-governance in Tanzania’s Higher Education

Today in Tanzania, various e-governance projects are being implemented in HEIs with the aim of enhancing the delivery of higher education services through information technology for a range of high volume routine transactions such as e-admission, online loan application system (OLAS) which is under Higher Education Students Loan Board (HESLB), online fee payment, etc. E-governance initiatives in HEIs are also being introduced to help students to have easy access to services by providing them with vital information on examination timetables, examination results, accommodation, scholarships, daily announcements and press releases, to mention some; thus helping them to make a living through higher education life span be centred on ICTs.

2.6.2.1 E-governance in Undergraduate Admission Services

A brief synopsis of the on-going enrolment trend in HEIs

The Need for Admission system

Conclusion

For the years, ICT has been marked to be trivial in modernizing and transforming most functions and operational practices in various institutions (Beynon-Davies, 2005). Literature portrays that the mediatory role of ICT to a large extent has facilitated the effective interaction between a broad range of stakeholders (Grimsley et al., 2007). In terms of providing electronic service delivery, ICT has played a significant role in the private and public sector (Beynon-Davies and Williams, 2003). This study attempted to understand the social dynamics that underlie the CAS implementation practices in Tanzania on the basis of an analysis of the socio-technical challenges, institutional relations, work organization and total quality management. Literature affirms that, e-governance implementation practice is a complex social domain of technology where some of the social conflicts among stakeholders manifest. Sreekumar (2007:3) points out that "the fact that the technology itself gets enmeshed in the relatively autonomous logic of the network society partly explains the inertia that stops the inevitable progress envisaged in the visions molded by concepts informing paradigms of rapid social change consequent on the implementation of e-governance projects".