Impact Of Technology On Warfighting

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

"Ultima ratio regum"

1. Since its evolution, artillery has forever been a decisive factor in battles. Be it the Charge of the Light Brigade or the First battle of Panipat, the cannons have decided the fate of many a nation. The concept of usage of fire power is not new, but has historical background and finds mention in the epics of "Ramayana" and "Mahabharata", in the form of "BRAHMASTRA" or "DIVYASTRA". Traditionally, artillery forms part of the firepower component of the classical concept of "fire and maneuver". Artillery the world over has evolved swiftly to support ever changing battlefield requirements. As was evident in the world wars that only attrition could cause capitulation of adversaries in a given time frame and it was artillery that gave the commanders freedom of action.

2. The function of artillery today is to establish such fire supremacy in the battlefield that the enemy can neither interfere with our operations nor develop his own effectively. This function is fulfilled by destroying or neutralizing enemy war potential, by causing prohibitive causalities on men and material to ultimately break his will to fight. This is achieved by providing effective surveillance supported by fire power at the right time, at the right place and in sufficient quantity. Modern technology has made it possible for the artillery to achieve the stated functions pragmatically and with greater efficacy. Modern gun and meteorological system, support systems, radars and RPVs have greatly enhanced the capabilities of artillery. The efficacy of modern conventional fire power was amply proved in the Gulf War. This pace of development is likely to progress through the coming years and will have to be in tune with tactical imperatives of our future battle field scenario. The changing spectrum in the future battle field environment and technology necessitates an objective analysis into our concept for provision of fire power.

3. All the armies of the world are laying stress on more accurate and highly responsive fire with variety of ammunition. The traditional task of providing high explosive fire, smoke and illumination are being augmented by bomb lets and mine lets, while terminal guidance at the target end is gaining prominence. To provide high responsiveness and quick mobility, the guns can provide burst fire and auto propulsion. The future artillery tactics will be based on "Deterrence", "Destruction" and "Decisive results". In order to canalise the tactical and strategic requirements of fire power, there is a requirement of coordinated effort at an institutional level where strategic and tactical concepts could be evaluated and analyzed.

4. In the Indian artillery, unfortunately, the development of tactical doctrine with regard to artillery, and the development of weaponry, has moved at a rather leisurely pace , resulting in paucity of fire power resources, both in terms of quantity as well as quality. The undesirable effect of this prevailing environment has lead to a decline in the optimal employment of artillery resources. There is a tendency to restrict only to the close support functions of the artillery. There are untapped areas as far as the principles, procedures; drills, communication setup and structure involved in handling artillery at higher levels besides the direct and close support tasks are concerned.

5. Artillery saw revolutionary metamorphosis during and immediately after the world wars. The Cold War saw the rise of NATO armies which mandated the advancements in artillery. The concept of war fighting progressed towards the realms of maneuver and also employment of firepower in a novel manner. The subsequent wars were based on modern concepts such as Effects Based Operation and Precision Strikes. Modern wars also demand short and swift conflicts entailing least collateral damage. Keeping in mind the above key issues in the Indian context, our armed forces are involved over the full spectrum of conflicts ranging from Low Intensity Conflicts to the threat conventional war on two fronts under nuclear backdrop. It is thus, pertinent to develop technologies which can support these types of conflicts where each and every action has a telling effect on the adversary. It is thus, pertinent to critically examine the impact of advancements in artillery in munitions, delivery systems, surveillance assets and fire control systems and its corresponding effect on concepts of war fighting.

METHODOLOGY

Justification of Research

6. The modern conflicts involve employment of armed forces in an innovative manner. It is also understood that technology drives the tactics and not vice versa. Ground breaking inventions in munitions technology such as precision guidance, improvement in delivery systems, pioneering work in fire control instruments and surveillance technology affect the way battles will be fought. In the Indian context it is essential to modernize the artillery inventory in view of changing scenarios and the plethora of conflicts being encountered. It entails changes in our war fighting concepts which must be imbibed in letter and spirit to optimize the employment of artillery assets.

Scope

7. The dissertation shall broadly deal with the evolution of war fighting over the past centuries and employment of artillery therein. It shall involve study of the modern advancements in munitions, delivery systems, fire control instruments and surveillance assets and impact of these on war fighting. It shall further analyze the changes needed in the Indian context followed by conclusion to include recommendations.

Method of Data Collection

8. The data collection shall entail the following:-

(a) Primary Sources. Official Publications, Journals, Research reports.

(b) Secondary Sources. Periodicals, Encyclopedia, Books.

(c) Tertiary Resources. Internet.

Org of Research

9. Chapter 1: Introduction & Methodology.

10. Chapter 2: Impact of Advancements in Ordnance & Ammunition.

11. Chapter 3: Impact of Advancements in Missiles & Rockets.

12. Chapter 4: Impact of Modernization in Fire Control Instruments.

13. Chapter 5: Impact of Transformation in Surveillance Systems.

14. Chapter 6: The Way Ahead.

CHAPTER 2:

IMPACT OF ADVANCEMENTS IN ORDNANCE & AMMUNITION

"The Guns, Thank God, The Guns……."

-Rudyard Kipling

Ordnance & ammunition are two important facets of artillery. Whereas, the ordnance provides the direction & range to a projectile, it is the ammunition which ultimately strikes that shattering blow, having a telling effect on the enemy forces, infrastructure or equipment. Thus, study of these must be analyzed in concert. Presently, the Indian Artillery mostly possesses "dumb" ammunition with an exception of "Krasnapol" which is a Terminally Guided Munition (TGM) and can only be fired by 155 MM guns. As far as the ordinances in the inventory are concerned, it is a mix of modern and archaic guns ranging from those used in World War II till recently up gunned Soltams. This chapter will analyze the evolution of artillery pieces and ammunition systems and visualize its effect on war fighting.

Evolution of Ordnances

2. Before the dawn of 18th century the use of artillery was in more or less direct firing role as the ranges achieved were restricted only to a few hundred yards. The early modern period comprised the muzzle loaded smooth bore canons which were not only heavy, but also cumbersome. The true connoisseur of artillery in the middle ages was Adolphus Gustavus II of Sweden who realized the true worth of canons on the battlefield by employing lighter and smaller weapons and revolutionizing their employment. The artillery of Europe entered 20th century during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 [1] however neither the tactical employment nor the technical advancements in this period were well developed. During this time the principle of "Massed" grand batteries and "duels" soon became pillars of the artillery doctrine in Europe. The beginning of 20th century saw development of "Quick loaders" using better metallurgy, breech loading mechanisms & cartridge cases which increased the range, rates of fire and provided better mobility due to lesser weight. Recoil was however, a predicament as it greatly restricted the rate of fire. During this time "Hienrich Ehrhardt" of Prussia and "Putilov" of Russia [2] became the mass producers of quick loaders. Most of the countries such as the US, Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Portugal adopted either of 75mm, 76.2mm or 77mm calibers for their armies. The British were the only exception to this rule as they developed 83.8mm 18 pounder gun. However, the breakthrough in development of quick loaders was achieved by French, by developing a 75mm gun with "long recoil" mechanism which improved the stability and increased the rate of fire to about 20 to 30 rounds a minute for limited periods.

3. Early 20th Century witnessed the development of howitzers which had the capability to deliver shells from a defiladed position, while at the same time remaining immune to the inbound enemy projectiles. 105 mm was taken to be the standard caliber for these howitzers. The advantages of howitzers mainly was because of the fact that it had a better ratio of the shell weight to the ordnance weight, better accuracy, splinter pattern and could deliver greater quantity of explosive on the target than any quick loaders of those times. However, not many nations took to employing howitzers in their armies. Another breakthrough during this era was the development of rifling of barrels. Another prominent personality Jean Baptiste de Gribeauval, a French artillery engineer propounded the standardization of canons down to nuts, bolts and screws which made mass production easier.

4. In the 1960s the Soviet Union’s 130 mm M-46 gun began to prove its range of 27.5 kilometers. This was in sharp contrast to the Western allies’ shorter ranges. Except the cumbersome American 175 mm (SP) Gun M-107 with a range of only 23 kilometers there was no suitable match to the Soviet 130 mm. The allies thus, decided to first spell out the basic requirements of a superior gun system and proposed that future artillery generations should have guns with ranges of approximately 30 km. While working out the operational characteristics, the NATO countries decided upon 155 mm as the basic caliber for their guns which was essentially dictated by its availability for nuclear employment.

5. The first venture was the development of FH-70, developed in collaboration between UK, Germany and Italy. In spite of all these advancements in delivery systems, the NATO countries failed to match the ranges of conventional artillery, achieved by the Soviets. With conventional ammunition, FH-70 could achieve a range of only 24 kilometers as against the range of 27.5 kilometers achieved by the Russian 130 mm Gun M-46. Thus began the research aimed towards the development of ammunition.

Latest Trends in Ordnances

6. The latest development in the field of ordnance has mainly taken place in improvement of gun materials or overall system improvements. The improvement in gun material has witnessed advancement mainly in the barrel design. By introducing 3% Chromium-Molybdenum steel whose higher carbon content makes it more elastic and suitable for barrel construction. There have also been refinements in the barrel construction process by introducing ESR (Electro Slag refining) process. This ensures that the steel is of a higher grade, cleaner and has improved properties of ductility, malleability, strength and higher temperature resistance. Composite materials such as aluminum alloys are being developed for gun construction. Aluminum, with its properties of light weight, corrosion resistance and strength is one of the major constituents of composite materials. It is also being considered as an alternative to steel for barrel construction. Titanium, a metal of proven strength is also being tested to be used in alloy form to produce firing platforms, spades and mountings for guns. Non metals such as fiber reinforced plastics; polyethylene, hardened glass and carbon fiber have been found suitable for shields, sights, base plates and some ancillaries of ammunition.

7. System improvements have also seen advancements and are likely to revolutionize the employment of artillery in future. A case in point being the Electro-Magnetic gun system which uses electro-magnetic forces, created through an induction coil, to drive a magnetized projectile along a rail at a very high velocity, thus doing away with explosive propellants. There has been considerable development in recoil system designs, wherein specially treated compressible fluids are being developed to absorb the force of recoil in the shortest possible time to achieve greater rates of fire and reduce wear and tear. There has also been a comprehensive study on use of microprocessors to optimize the recoil force and hence, control recoil length.

8. There has also been a considerable improvement in development of mortars. With their ability to deploy and re-deploy quickly and bring down heavy volume of fire in short time they have always proved very effective. The development in mortars has been in two directions; firstly, to improve their mobility, mortars have been mounted on wheeled/tracked vehicles and secondly, improvement in range by rifling and improving the ammunition.

Impact on War Fighting

9. In the Middle Ages artillery was primarily employed for "siege" that is designed to bombard fortifications, cities and other fixed targets. These were heavy and required enormous logistical support to operate. On development of quick loader guns the problem was partially solved, however the slow rates of fire resulted in preparatory bombardment extending into days and thus leading to loss of surprise. Also, due to shorter ranges, the guns had to be placed close to the targets, increasing their vulnerability. Artillery employment was restricted either against infantry or against enemy guns. World War II saw the developments and execution of concept of "Barrages", which were too set piece and required a very high degree of preparation and coordination. Also, the correction of artillery fire was a problem due to communication equipment. However modern artillery has had an impressive impact on war fighting and some of these have been elucidated in the succeeding paragraphs.

10. High Rate of Fire. High rate of fire has reduced the requirement to amass large number of artillery pieces. The targets can now be adequately punished by varying the rates of fire. This has also led to reducing the engagement timing, thus exposing friendly artillery to enemy surveillance resources for a very short duration. Also, a high rate of fire has made it easy to deliver "First Salvo" on unsuspecting enemy to achieve maximum casualties.

11. Longer Range. Longer ranges have made artillery a force multiplier as greater frontages can now be covered by the same number of guns. This also facilitates guns being spread, thus, making them less vulnerable to counter battery fires. This characteristic also reduces the number of redeployments to support the battle.

12. Low & High Angle of Fire. This capability can be attributed to the development of Gun-howitzers and is a force multiplier as it does away with the requirement of having special guns for mountains. It grants flexibility to the artillery commander and can also be used to thicken fire on targets.

13. Auxiliary Power Units. Auxiliary Power Unit or APU as it is commonly known has had a revolutionary impact on artillery guns. This uses power of an engine to accomplish tasks of preparing, loading, laying, ramming the shell and firing guns, thereby automating these processes and considerably reducing reaction time. This also facilitates having a heavier gun on a lighter chassis. APU also provides the means to move the guns over short distances owing to counter bombardment. It can also be utilised to move the guns to an alternative position or for negotiating difficult terrain.

14. Reduced Weight. For easy maneuverability, easy handling and in order to have air transportation/helicopter lift capability, it is essential that the equipment must be light. The advantage of helicopter lifting the guns was witnessed during the 1971 Indo Pak War.

15. Automation & Speed of Response. The future battlefield environment will demand rapid deployment and engagement of targets with minimum of preliminaries. Short reaction time for the first salvo and subsequent salvoes would enable the artillery to attain surprise and ensure optimum results at the target end. The higher rate of fire demanded by modern conflicts will necessitate a greater degree of automation. This would entail automation of loading, handling of fire control data, laying and other firing procedures.

Evolution of Ammunition

16. Ammunition as discussed earlier is a vital facet of artillery effectiveness. In fact it is the ammunition directed on the target which causes devastation of the enemy in consonance with the commanders’ plans. The word "Ammunition" is derived from the Latin Word "Muniri"; the French used the term "Munitions" in the same sense. The medieval Latin made it "Admunition" which later came to be known as ammunition. The accidental invention of gun powder was a turning point in the history of artillery. In the olden days it was the bows and arrows. When the first smooth bore canon was invented, its ammunition was cast iron spheres which suited to the concept of "siege" artillery, wherein the task of artillery was restricted to decimate the fortifications and bastions of forts so that the infantry could charge. As the artillery evolved in design & concept, its ammunition improved too. It is at the Germans, who for the first time used a delay fuze or "Verzögerungszünder" during the World War I and it had a devastating effect on the fortifications of allies [3] . This war also saw the use of a "unitary shell" which had a limited filling of shrapnel bullets and was ignited by a powder- train time fuze. However, this fuze turned to be a failure due to its prohibitive cost & limited effectiveness. Peculiar requirement of the battlefield forced countries to research and develop different projectiles. World War II saw the tangible breakthrough in the field of ammunition and specialist shells and fuzes were developed during this conflict. High explosive, fragmented, smoke & illumination shells were some of the major developments of this era. The fuzes included delay, graze action & mechanical time fuzes. From the Cold War era onwards as the arms race engulfed the superpowers, further advancement was witnessed in the field of ammunition. However, the chief factor which affected the accuracy of these was the ability of the Observation Post Officer to correct the fall of shot, as also, the terrain & meteorological conditions and many other tangible & intangible factors which affected the trajectory over long distances. This led to the development of ammunition which could be directed onto the target with maximum accuracy even in adverse terrain or weather conditions.

17. The new generation of ammunition came under development during the Cold War Era and continues to be developed even today. Need was felt to develop ammunition which could ensure better splinter pattern, which could be employed in multiple roles such as graze, delay or direct action and which could be as accurate as possible. As the concepts of war fighting changed from attrition to maneuver, artillery gained prominence and it became all the more necessary to develop ammunition which could fulfill these requirements. Ammunition which could cause calculated damage, with maximum accuracy and minimum collateral damage was the order of the day. Some of the advanced ammunition systems being currently used by armies around the world use the technologies such as "Base Bleed", "Improved Conventional Munitions" and "Terminally Guided Munitions". This was also supported by developments in the fuze and charge systems which were made universal, i.e. same systems were applicable to artillery guns of any make or nature.

18. In the present day, constraints preclude further increase in the number of artillery pieces. Besides, guns of all calibers have reached their optimum design development in the field of ranges and rates of fire. The emphasis has therefore been on development/procurement of modern ammunition system. The so called "dumb" ammunition suffers from many shortcomings, which causes inaccuracies owing to different types of terrain and meteorological conditions and has thus, forced developers the world over to develop ammunition with enhanced accuracy and effectiveness. Some of the shortcomings that the present day conventional ammunition suffers has been briefly covered as under.

(a) Less Kill probability. Even when aimed correctly the rounds are scattered in a broad dispersion pattern, resulting from numerous errors which leads to excessive ammunition expenditure. Also, with "dumb" ammunition it is nearly impossible to destroy moving targets.

(b) Increased Ammunition Expenditure. Maximum battle casualties during past wars were due to artillery fire. At the same time ammunition expenditure had been disproportionately high in comparison to casualties. Analysis of previous wars shows an expenditure disparity and casualty occurrence. Also, ammunition calculations based on archaic methods such as AMTAB; still in prevalence puts a great burden on the logistical aspects of transporting, storing & handling large quantities of ammunitions.

(c) Increased Barrel Wear. The enhanced ammunition expenditure has corresponding effect on barrel wear. For example, each round of 155 mm caliber fired with the highest charge causes considerable wear. Given the fact that saturation is to be carried out to achieve the desired effect, a large quantum is required to be delivered at the target. This increases wear and tear of the ordinance exponentially, adding further burden to care and maintenance aspects.

(d) Increased Logistic Support. Conventional ammunition being required in larger quantities, the transportation, handling & maintenance aspects require deliberate planning and are an important facet of logistical planning. Also, the fact that each type of artillery gun requires different type of ancillaries such as, projectile, charge, fuze and special handling equipment, it adds to logistician’s problems.

Latest Trends in Ammunition

19. Future battlefield envisages short and intense wars involving mobile battles being conducted over the entire depth of the battlefield. Such conflicts envisage employment of long range precision ammunition. Keeping the same in mind, development of modern ammunition has taken place. The major improvements in this field have been development of Extended Range Projectiles (ERP), Improved Conventional Munitions (ICMs) and Terminally Guided Munitions (TGMs). Gun designs have more or less reached their saturation level, as far as increasing the range of the gun is concerned. However, an improvement in the ammunition system can help achieve greater ranges, by optimizing the ballistic trajectory of a shell and providing it with some form of post firing boost or guidance. Some of the latest trends in ammunition systems are discussed in subsequent paragraphs

20. Extended Range Sub Caliber Projectiles (ERSC) projectile has a diameter less than the caliber of the weapon and is encased in ‘Sabots’ that are discarded on release from the barrel, thus reducing the diameter of the projectile and consequently decreasing the air resistance acting on it. The Extended Range Full Bore Projectiles (ERFB) projectile gives enhanced range due to better aerodynamic shape. The ERFB with Base Bleed Unit helps achieve longer ranges by reducing the drag created behind the shell in flight. It does not however provide any additional lethality. Norinco of China has developed one such ammunition for its 130 mm gun which achieves a maximum range of 38 km. HEER ammunition fired by own Bofors FH77 B also uses this technology. Another type of ammunition being used is the Rocket Assisted Projectile which consists of a solid propellant rocket motor. The rocket motor is fired during the flight of the projectile thus enhancing the range achieved. RAPs can achieve an increase in range by 15 to 20%.

21. Precision Guided Munitions (PGMs). The provision of adequate and effective anti tank fire power to counter a major armour threat is a prime requirement for any modern army. Although direct firing anti tank artillery is a deterrent, yet its effectiveness against a massed armoured attack is suspect. The development of terminally guided munitions with a first round kill probability has made it possible to blunt the armour threat to a large extent. Some of the modern projectiles which help achieve this are the Cannon Launched Guided Projectile (CLGP). The CLGP consists of three separate sections-the guidance section, war head and the control section. The guidance unit consists of a semi active laser seeker. As the shell clears the muzzle, the stabilizing and guiding fins pop out automatically. On reaching the target end, the projectile descends downwards and the preset timer activates the laser seeker which scans the target area. A forward observation team illuminates the target using a laser designator. The reflected laser beams are picked up by the laser seeker which then computes the correction required to steer the shell directly onto the target. It has the capability to maneuver onto a target at any point within a 3000m diameter circle.

22. The Sense and Destroy Armour (SADARM) projectile contains three sub munitions which are ejected over the target area with the help of a standard time fuze. A specially designed parachute then opens to stabilize and control the descent rate of each sub munitions. The sub munitions rotate as they descend thus causing a sensor in it to scan the area below in a collapsing spiral. Should a target be detected, the sensor will transmit an electronic impulse which would detonate the High Explosive, propelling a slug at hyper velocity towards the target.

23. Improved Conventional Munitions (ICMs). The performance of conventional ammunition can be improved against hard and semi hard targets by placing a number of lethal sub-munitions in a carrier type projectile or by placing a number of pre formed fragments around a High Explosive filling. ICM shells contain anti personnel and anti tank grenades. Larger caliber weapon are now being used to convey bomblets of various configurations in a projectile body for use against various targets such as personnel, armour, vehicles and fortifications. The release of bomblets is usually attained by removing the outer skin of the war head explosively, thus allowing the bomblets to be thrown out either by aerodynamic and/or gravitational forces. Some of the current munitions under this category are the FASCAMS employed for laying of minefields to disorganize the enemy, the Anti Armour Mine System (RAAMS) projectile which contains nine anti tank mines and the Area Denial Artillery Munitions (ADAMS). This can carry 36 anti personnel mines

24. Fuzes. While each component of a gun system has its own importance in the achievement of the overall aim, fuzes undoubtedly have a very crucial role to play in achieving the desired result at the target end. No amount of accuracy, payload, range or speed would be of any use in case the fuze fails to function at the right time and place. The present situation in India, as far as fuzes are concerned, is a highly confused one – we have a large inventory with different fuzes for different equipment and different effects, there are a large variety of obsolete fuzes also thereby leading to immense logistic problems. Training of gunners on this wide variety of fuzes is also problematic since skilled training is required for each different type of fuze and at times even recognition of the fuze becomes difficult.

The latest development in this field is the Proximity multirole fuzes which are compact electronic fuzes 22. The latest devp in this fd are the compact elec fuzes which incorporating both proximity and direct action functions. They are set using a manually operated electronic fuze setter. If jamming is detected, the fuze automatically reverts to point detonation mode. Some fuzes also utilize an altimeter for height measurement by which the fuze functions, with an impact action as backup. These fuzes are smaller, more reliable and more accurate than mechanical fuzes and can be fitted to carrier, smoke ejection and illumination rounds from 105 mm to 203 mm caliber. In our country, the M 85 R 13 and the M 85 P13, which are universal fuzes, are in use.

25. Charge Systems. Another aspect in which there have been major improvements is in the charge system. The latest development in this field is the Modular Artillery Charge System (MACS). It consists of combustible case increments with a bi-directional ignition system and accrues the advantages of improved logistics, increased rate of fire, economical, compatible and lesser wear of the barrel. Extensive research is also being carried out in the field of liquid propellants. These propellants have the advantages of no cartridge cases, ease of manufacture and transport, variable ranges, lesser smoke and stability in transport and storage.

Impact of Modern Ammunition

26. With the shortcomings mentioned in the earlier paragraph, it was necessary to develop such ammunition as would be efficient in terms of its range, accuracy, lethality and versatility so as to ameliorate the same. The modern ammunition systems are not only lethal; they are highly responsive and intelligent. Use of specialized ammunition not only assures target destruction but also ensures economy of effort and reduces collateral damage. Some of the advantages accrued from modern ammunitions are mentioned below:-

(a) Enhanced Reach. With the development of Base Bleed and Extended Range projectiles the problem of optimum design development of guns has been ameliorated. With ranges extending up to 40 to 50 Kilometers, greater flexibility can be achieved. This gives commanders ability to maneuver without having to redeploy artillery frequently. This also gives artillery requisite time to sidestep if counter battery threat develops.

(b) Assured Target Destruction. With precision and terminally guided ammunition being developed, assured target destruction can be guaranteed. This not only proves economical in terms of quantity of ammunition, but also ensures that operations progress in earlier time frame. This also facilitates negating the effects of non standard factors, such as, meteorological parameters and accidental errors, which have a major role to play in accuracy of conventional munitions.

CHAPTER 3

IMPACT OF ADVANCEMENTS IN MISSILES & ROCKETS

"Artillery conquers and infantry occupies."

JFC Fuller

Introduction

1. While the speed and sound of rockets and missiles have fascinated man for a thousand years, his survival today is dependent on those weapons never being used. Rockets and missiles of the earliest times had been used as sources of entertainment, as signaling devices and sometimes as simple weapons, but with indifferent results. Rockets can trace their history back to China and the production of gunpowder in the 11th century. Eventually the gunpowder was packed into metal cylinders and mounted on arrows. These projectiles, although short in range, had some shock value as a result of their fire and sound effects. Over two hundred years later this technology had its first recorded military application when the Chinese broke the Mongol siege of a city by the surprise use of hundreds of rocket arrows against the invading army.

2. The first iron-cased and metal-cylinder rocket artillery, made from iron tubes, were developed by Tipu Sultan, the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, and his father Hyder Ali, in the 1780s. Tipu Sultan championed the use of mass attacks with rocket brigades within the army, and he wrote a military manual on it, the Fathul Mujahidin. He successfully used these metal-cylinder rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). The effect of these weapons on the British during the Second, Third and Fourth Mysore Wars in 1792 was sufficiently impressive to inspire the British to develop their own rocket designs. Several Mysore rockets were sent to England, where the British then took an active interest in the technology and developed it further during the 19th century [4] 

3. While the artillery guns had more or less their design saturation by the end of the Cold War, other developments possible in this field were on. The Russians had developed the Katyusha missiles and the NATO had developed the Scud as its counter. Also the rocket technology developed due to advancements in space technology and satellite applications.In that interim period the development of rocketry, aided by both industrial and technical innovations, would lay the foundation for both space exploration and strategic weapon arsenals. These developments, however, would not have taken place if it were not for the imagination and endeavour of a group of men from many different countries, who clearly raised the level of research and development of missiles and rockets to that of the science that it is today.

4. Tsiolkovsky was concerned with the theoretical principles of modern rocketry, propulsion and space travel. He confirmed Newton’s basic theory of action and reaction as it applied to a rocket leaving the earth and travelling through the atmosphere to reach space. Robert Goddard’s role in the development of modern rocketry was pivotal. While also developing a large body of theoretical work, Goddard constructed the first liquid-propellant rocket, launched on 16 March 1926. Goddard worked in relative isolation until World War II, when the military requirements of missile flight absorbed all of his efforts. Goddard’s contribution to missile flight was underlined by German World War II missilier Wernher von Braun, when he commented that everything his missile development group worked on was drawn from Goddard’s activities.

4. Developments in World War II. The development in World War II of the German V-1 cruise missile, the V-2ballistic missile and the Waterfall surface to air missile created the foundation for the space missiles and modern weapons developed by the United States and the Soviet Union. While the V-1 and the V-2 had similar military objectives, two different military services, the Air Force and the Army, controlled the development and deployment of the weapons, with neither development group aware of the existence of the other. Although the rockets were extensively employed during this period, they were not very effective due to various reasons such as dispersion, which is inherent to rocket systems, lesser TNT content, which had a reciprocal relation to range, as also no guidance system to cater for changes in meteorological conditions or target movement.

Advancements in Missile and Rocket Technology

5. Missile technology has seen major developments in terms of range enhancement, improved lethality and augmented ranges. Missiles have been employed by the US and its allies very effectively in Vietnam and subsequently during the operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. The US Army successfully employed its newly developed Army Tactical Missile System (ATACMS) against Republican Guard and majority of the Iraqi Army. The ATACMS proved its value because of its ability to strike deep behind enemy lines quickly and with great precision. The three day process of Ammunition tasking Order (ATO) could be reduced to a few minutes with ATACMS without all the elaborate preparation as required for equivalent fighter strikes. [5] Some of the modern rockets and missile in service around the world are discussed in the subsequent paragraphs. Some of the modern technologies being harnessed for developing modern missiles to ameliorate the shortcomings of missiles and rockets have been discussed are discussed in the subsequent paragraphs.

6. The modern advancements in the field of rockets and missiles has mainly taken in the guidance system, the propulsion systems and the ammunition systems. These have been discussed as under:-

(a) Inertial Guidance. Inertial guidance is a method which  a computer, motion sensors (accelerometers) and rotation sensors (gyroscopes) to continuously calculate via dead reckoning the position, orientation, and velocity (direction and speed of movement) of a moving object without the need for external references. Such system is very effective in maintaining the trajectory of the missile or the rocket over longer ranges.

(b) Guided on Target/ Line of Sight. Guidance systems are divided into different categories according to what type of target they are designed for - either fixed targets or moving targets. The weapons can be divided into two broad categories, Go-Onto-Target (GOT) and Go-Onto-Location-in-Space (GOLIS) guidance systems. A GOT missile can target either a moving or fixed target, whereas a GOLIS weapon is limited to a stationary or near-stationary target. The trajectory that a missile takes while attacking a moving target is dependent upon the movement of the target. Also, a moving target can be an immediate threat to the sender of the missile. The target needs to be eliminated in a timely fashion in order to preserve the integrity of the sender. In GOLIS systems the problem is simpler because the target is not moving.

(c) Command Line of Sight. The CLOS system uses only the angular coordinates between the missile and the target to ensure the collision. The missile will have to be in the line of sight between the launcher and the target (LOS), correcting any deviation of the missile in relation to this line. Due to the amount of missiles that use this guidance system, they are usually subdivided into four groups namely Manual Command to Line-Of-Sight (MCLOS), the Semi-Manual Command to Line-Of-Sight (SMCLOS), the Semi-Automatic Command to Line-Of-Sight (SACLOS), and Automatic Command to Line-Of-Sight (ACLOS), The target tracking, missile tracking and control are automatic.

(d) Celestial Guidance. Celestial guidance uses star positioning to fine-tune the accuracy of the inertial guidance system after launch. As the accuracy of a missile is dependent upon the guidance system knowing the exact position of the missile at any given moment during its flight, the fact that stars are a fixed reference point from which to calculate that position makes this a potentially very effective means of improving accuracy.

(e) Terrestrial Guidance. It uses "TERCOM", i.e. terrain contour matching and uses altitude maps of the strip of land from the launch site to the target, and compares them with information from a radar altimeter on board. More sophisticated TERCOM systems allow the missile to fly a complex route over a full three dimensional map, instead of flying directly to the target. TERCOM is the typical system for cruise missile guidance, but is being supplanted by GPS systems and by DSMAC, Digital Scene-Matching Area Correlator, which employs a camera to view an area of land, digitizes the view, and compares it to stored scenes in an onboard computer to guide the missile to its target.

(f) Compound Guidance. The present guidance systems are not accurate especially to engage the moving targets. All the way guidance or dynamic guidance techniques will not be very effective in heavy ECM environment. The compound guidance system was developed to overcome these problems. Most of the future missiles will use compound guidance especially the tactical missiles. In this, the missiles will be guided on to the target by a preset guidance method to avoid the ECM. After reaching the target location the final guidance of the missile will be by a dynamic guidance method.

(g) GPS Guidance. This is a form of navigational guidance. In this system, a number of earth satellites will be placed in orbits such that, at least four of them may be seen from any point on the surface of the earth at any one time. The satellites transmit carefully time synchronized coded signals which will be received and analyzed by a receiver carried in the missile, by noting the time of arrival of the signals from the various transmitters. The computer in the missile calculates its position in space up to accuracy of few meters. Such a navigation system can be used as guidance system either for the entire trajectory of a missile or for mid-course guidance.

7. The modern trends in propulsion systems of modern missiles are as under:-

(a) Liquid Propellant Jet Propulsion. A liquid-propellant rocket or a liquid rocket is a rocket engine that uses propellants in liquid form. Liquids are desirable because their reasonably high density allows the volume of the propellant tanks to be relatively low, and it is possible to use lightweight pumps to pump the propellant from the tanks into the engines, which means that the propellants can be kept under low pressure. This permits the use of low mass propellant tanks, permitting a high mass ratio for the rocket. Liquid rockets have been built as monopropellant rockets using a single type of propellant, bipropellant rockets using two types of propellant, or more exotic tripropellant rockets using three types of propellant. Bipropellant liquid rockets generally use one liquid fuel and one liquid oxidizer. Liquid-propellant rockets sometimes use cryogenic rocket engines, where fuel or oxidizers are gases liquefied at very low temperatures. Liquid propellant rockets can be throttled in real time, and have control of mixture ratio; they can also be shut down, and, with a suitable ignition system or self-igniting propellant, restarted.

(b) Solid Propellant Jet Propulsion. Solid propellants are either composites mostly of large, distinct macroscopic particles or bases which are a homogeneous mixture of one or more primary ingredients. Solid propellant rockets are much easier to store and handle than liquid propellant rockets. High propellant density makes for compact size as well. These features plus simplicity and low cost make solid propellant rockets ideal for military applications. Their simplicity also makes solid rockets a good choice whenever large amounts of thrust are needed and cost is an issue. The Space Shuttle and many other orbital launch vehicles use solid-fuelled rockets in their boost stages (solid rocket boosters) for this reason.

8. The modern missiles employ modern types of ammunition which can be employed for a plethora of tasks. Some of these have been discussed below:-

(a) Fuel Air Explosive (FAE). A fuel-air explosive (FAE) device consists of a container of fuel and two separate explosive charges. After the munitions are dropped or fired, the first explosive charge bursts open the container at a predetermined height and disperses the fuel in a cloud that mixes with atmospheric oxygen (the size of the cloud varies with the size of the munitions). The cloud of fuel flows around objects and into structures. The second charge then detonates the cloud, creating a massive blast wave. The blast wave destroys unreinforced buildings and equipment and kills and injures people. The antipersonnel effect of the blast wave is more severe in foxholes, on people with body armour, and in enclosed spaces such as caves, buildings, and bunkers. Fuel-air explosives were first developed, and used in Vietnam, by the United States. Soviet scientists, however, quickly developed their own FAE weapons, which were reportedly used against China in the Sino-Soviet border conflict and in Afghanistan. Since then research and development has continued and currently Russian forces field a wide array of third-generation FAE warheads.

(b) Cluster Munitions. Modern cluster bombs and submunition dispensers are often multiple-purpose weapons, containing mixtures of anti-armour, anti-personnel, and anti-materiel munitions. The submunitions themselves may also be multi-purpose, such as combining a shaped charge, to attack armour, with a fragmenting case, to attack infantry, material, and light vehicles. Modern multipurpose munitions may also have an incendiary effect.

Impact on War Fighting

9. As has already been discussed in the previous paragraphs, it is amply clear thar missiles and rockets have revolutionized the way artillery is employed. There are a variety of ways to exploit technology in missile construction and propulsion Furthermore, there are several different modes for delivering nuclear warheads. Missile advances are being made regularly and future missile capabilities, because of various technologies, are likely to be even more exotic. "Invisible missiles", terminal guidance systems, improved propulsion and the introduction of non-nuclear warheads in strategic weapons will all have impact on the future weapons of World War III. Nuclear warheads development for missiles is also likely to evolve along various paths. The technical evolution and sophistication now found in modern strategic weapons has ensured that missiles will continue to dominate the offensive aspects of any future war. From this brief account it is evident that rocket development has already reached a point at which there are rockets capable of fulfilling all the functions of conventional tube artillery. This has led some to predict that missile artillery will eventually replace conventional guns, but however the predicted obsolescence of cannon has so far not come to pass. The impact of developments in missile technology on war fighting can be summarized as under:-

(a) Enhanced Range. With the advancements in propulsion systems, rockets and missiles can now be employed over very large distances extending to thousands of kilometers and thus enhancing the strategic reach of artillery. A corollary to this fact is that the future battles can be fought well inside the enemy territory and his war waging capability can be destroyed piecemeal before it can be brought to bear on own forces.

(b) Flexibility. Modern rocket and missile systems are mostly mobile and can thus be employed at short notices and limited reaction time. Considering its enhanced range and plethora of ammunition they provide, greater flexibility to the commanders and are effective in shaping the battlefield.

(c) Greater Accuracy. Greater accuracy is achieved by employing modern guidance systems which not only ensures guaranteed target destruction but also reduces collateral damage.

CHAPTER 4:

IMPACT OF MODERNIZATION IN FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS

"I do not have to tell you who won the war. You know, the artillery did."

-General George S Patton

Introduction

1. Future battles will be characterized by fluid multidimensional battles employing widely dispersed agile forces requiring dedicated artillery support. The addition of new dimensions like computers, intelligence and electronic warfare envisaging greater data, information handling and processing and decision support capability to own commanders which at the same time deny a like capability to the enemy will fall within the purview of any future command and control system. Any command and control system will co-ordinate lethality, mobility and battlefield support functions in close, rear and deep operations. It must be able to provide real time or near real time collection, management, fusion and dissemination of battle information that will permit commanders to make better informed and more timely decisions. It can therefore be subdivided into four functional areas, namely, collection, management, transport and denial of information.

2. At the same time even communications play a crucial role in retaining control over artillery employment. Information technology is a fine blend of computers and communications. It has been understood long back and accepted that without one, the other cannot exist. This fact becomes more pronounced where real time applications are concerned. Command and control system are made up of people, equipment and information system designed to assist in planning, directing and controlling military forces. Command & control must enhance the inherent deterrent capabilities of both offensive and defensive forces. They must provide commanders at all echelons with accurate, timely and credible information, provide a means to process, display and evaluate data and also provide the Commanders with the capabilities to transmit orders and decisions to the forces and weapon systems. Automation of information and decision support system of artillery in the battlefield must be related to the present environment as well as to the operational requirement envisaged in future. This amount of information processing at various levels will continue to increase and it will be extremely difficult to process, evaluate and accesses this information using manual staff procedures. The ability to use this operational information and react to the fast changing, situation will prove to be one of the most important battle winning factors in future wars. This challenge of providing information at the right time, at the right place and in the right form to support the decision making processes thus dictates the necessity of establishing a fully automated and integrated Information and Decision Support System

Advancements in Fire Control Instruments

3. In order to achieve the first salvo effectiveness, of which speed and accuracy are the two most essential ingredients, an automated fire control system becomes an inescapable requirement of modern artillery. Keeping this in mind, a number of fire control systems have been developed all over the world. BATES (British), EAFLS (German), AFTADS (USA), ACCCS (India) (Artillery combat command and control system) are some of the often heard names in this field. These have been discussed as under.

4. Battlefield Artillery Target Engagement System (BATES). It is a semi-automatic data processing and fire-control system developed for the British Army. It features distributed data processing at each command level, having computing power and functionality appropriate to the level involved. Information is conveyed around the system using digital communications [6] .Development of the system began in 1976 with a feasibility study, and full project definition began in 1980. At this time Marconi was responsible for the hardware. Spending restrictions and software difficulties meant the system, which was scheduled to enter service in about 1985, slipped two years. The integration of other sensing systems and new weapon platforms into BATES, such as Phoenix, COBRA, MLRS, BMETS and AS90, was subsequently completed. The hardware includes hardened digital processors, plasma visual display units, data entry units, gun display units and communications interfaces with the Clansman combat net radio and the Ptarmigan tactical network. In 2001 BATES software V2.6 was introduced to the UK Field Army, which provided a claimed 'step improvement' to core functionality and general operation. BATES is incompatible with the Bowman communications system being introduced into the British Army and is therefore being progressively withdrawn as Bowman is fielded.

5. Artillery Fire Control System (EAFLS). With the recent introduction of the EAFLS major advances in the modernization and battle readiness of artillery units are done. The conventional techniques have now been replaced with fully automated, "state of the art" artillery guidance systems. The design and development of the EAFLS hardware is modular, meaning that the entire system, or any individual component (processor, modem, interfacing card etc.) may be upgraded or replaced as required, without compromising the integrity of the entire system. It provides the artillery units with the means to achieve improved destruction capability over enemy forces, increased efficiency with optimized ammunition use, faster response to new targets and threats, accurate situation picture in real time, increased mobility and deployment and improved survivability. The system hardware comprises an artillery tactical computer, data entry unit, gun control unit, portable computer and a printer. [7] 

6. Advanced Field Artillery Tactical Data System (AFATDS). AFATDS is a totally integrated fire support command and control system. It processes fire mission and other related information to coordinate and optimize the use of all fire support assets, including mortars, field artillery, cannon, missile, attack helicopters, air support, and naval gunfire. AFATDS will provide processing capabilities from the corps to the platoon Fire Direction Center. Through the use of distributed processing capabilities, fire missions will flow through the fire support chain during which target attack criteria will be matched to the most effective weapon systems available at the lowest echelon. The automation provided by AFATDS will enhance the maneuver commander's ability to dominate the battle by providing the right mix of firing platforms and munitions to defeat enemy targets based on the commander's guidance and priorities. [8] AFATDS also expands the fire support commander's ability to control assets and allocate resources. AFATDS will automate and facilitate fire support planning and current operations. During battle, AFATDS will provide up-to-date battlefield information, target analysis, and unit status, while coordinating target damage assessment and sensor operations. Integrating all fire support systems via a distributed processing system will create a greater degree of tactical mobility for fire support units and allow missions to be planned and completed in less time. AFATDS will also meet field artillery needs by managing critical resources; supporting personnel assignments; collecting and forwarding intelligence information; and controlling supply, maintenance, and other logistical functions.

7. Artillery Combat Command Control System (ACCCS). Current and future trends in weapon technology give artillery the capability to engage more targets, accurately and effectively. Improved ranges of weapon system also mean engagement of targets by fire units spread out over a wider area in the battlefield. This prompted the introduction of ACCCS which provides the capability to rapidly compute firing data,

allocate command and control and suitable weapons for optimum utilization of Artillery, integrate all elements for cost effective fire power with speed and accuracy. The various components of ACCCS system are an Enhanced Tactical Computer, a Hand held Computer for the Observation Post Officer and a Gun Display Unit. The complete equipment can work on mixed media. The equipment is connected on line as the media. The complete system can work in the centralized mode, which is the normal mode of operation.

Impact on war fighting

8. Considering the battlefield as a big canvas, there will be swift shifting of forces and equipment from one theater of operation to the other. Rapid grouping and regrouping will pose problems in a conventional grouping and allotment scenario in terms of `in support', `under command' and such like terms being used today in a relatively passive battle field. There will have to be a more versatile and fluid system of allotment of support and grouping. With incoming on board navigation and command and control systems with digital communication, these problems will be effectively minimized. There is a requirement of revising the policy of employment and deployment of artillery and also of the mindset of the future commanders. The impact of modern fire control devices on employment of artillery can be summarized in the following:-

(a) Employment in a Networked Environment. To cater for fast and fluid battles of future and to be responsive to the needs of forces moving ahead it is essential to be networked in real time. With the advancements in fire control devices and communication systems, it is now possible to direct artillery on to time critical targets located far distances in a matter of a few minutes, thereby reducing engagement time to a great extent. This has been made possible by real time data and intelligence sharing and a common interface with all types of surveillance devices.

(b) Enhanced Tactical Control. Modern technology has enabled fire control systems to acquire complex algorithms and software which assist the gunners to process fire requests at a faster rate, carry out target analysis easily and allot fire units and ammunition automatically. This has overall reduced the reaction time for engagement and made artillery more responsive. These systems also assist the forward observers in ascertaining better locations for observation. Automatic generation of fire plans and ammunition calculation also assists in faster conduct of operations.

(c) Improved Technical Control. With modern algorithms and data processors, the modern systems enable faster trajectory modeling, safety aspects as also reduce chances of human error, thereby, enhancing the fire requests. It also enables automatic correction of GPS and meteorological data, enhancing accuracy of fire.

CHAPTER 5:

IMPACT OF TRANSFORMATION IN SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS

"I have spent all my life in trying to guess what lay on the other side of the hill"

-The Duke of Wellington

Gen

1. Combat power essentially comprises three important components, namely, maneuver elements, and firepower and surveillance assets. To optimize the combat potential of a combat force, the capabilities of all three components are required to complement each other. Battle space awareness provides a commander the ability to collect, collate, analyze and disseminate the intelligence in real time within the area of operations. The creation of battle space awareness by integrated employment of all surveillance and target acquisition means is to create a real time situational awareness. With realization of data links and acquisition of force multipliers, the commanders’ awareness of the battlefield will expand enormously. Targeting is a multifaceted effort that requires coordinated interaction among different elements. Close coordination between all surveillance and targeting agencies is crucial for success. Sensors and collection capabilities must be closely coordinated at operational levels for efficient and quick reporting of fleeting targets of opportunity or high payoff targets. The objective of surveillance devices is to provide such degree of battlefield awareness to the commander so that he can react to situations faster than the adversary to achieve success.

Latest Trends in Surveillance Devices

2. The army in today’s combat scenario is likely to fight in a comparatively sophisticated and dispersed battlefield against a determined enemy equipped with state of art equipment and weaponry. The engagements are likely to be sharp, intense and very rapid resulting in very high levels of attrition in both men and material. The enemy is likely to use all dimensions including ground air water and even either space to deliver strikes from areas in depth. He is likely to take all steps to deny and even deceive us with respect to his intentions. There is thus need to acquire surveillance devices which can cover the complete spectrum of conflict and can be employed for all types of operations. The US employed Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) in surveillance role during the Gulf War and more recently in Afghanistan and have achieved promising results. Surveillance devices in the past decade or so have undergone tremendous developments. These devices now range from Short Range Battlefield Surveillance Radars (SRBFSR) to cutting edge Unmanned Aerial Vehicles which have the ability to provide accurate identification in real or near real time. Some of the latest trends in surveillance devices have been discussed in the subsequent paragraphs:-

3. Latest Trends in Electro-Optical Devices. Electro Optical Devices have converted night into day and have given tremendous capability to battlefield awareness. Some of the modern electro-optical devices comprise the Long Range Reconnaissance and Observation System(LORROS) and similar such devices which exploit the Forward Looking Infra Red (FLIR) and Charged Coupled Devices (CCD) to view the target area effectively. The FLIR cameras, sometimes called "far infrared", operate at 8 to 12 micrometer and can see heat sources, such as hot engine parts or human body heat, a few miles away. These cameras require their detector to be cryogenically cooled, typically for several minutes before use, although moderately sensitive infrared cameras that do not require cryogenic cooling. FLIR Cameras which operate in the 3 to 5 micrometer range are called medium-wave infrared (MWIR) and can see almost as well, as those frequencies suffer less from water-vapor absorption, but generally require a more expensive sensor array and cryogenic cooling.

4. Another technology being commonly used is the Charged Coupled Devices or CCD in which an image is projected through a lens onto the capacitor array (the photoactive region), causing each capacitor to accumulate an electric charge proportional to the light intensity at that location. A one-dimensional array, used in line-scan cameras, captures a single slice of the image, while a two-dimensional array, used in video and still cameras, captures a two-dimensional picture corresponding to the scene projected onto the focal plane of the sensor. Once the array has been exposed to the image, a control circuit causes each capacitor to transfer its contents to its neighbor (operating as a shift register). The last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into a charge amplifier, which converts the charge into a voltage. By repeating this process, the controlling circuit converts the entire contents of the array in the semiconductor to a sequence of voltages. In a digital device, these voltages are then sampled, digitized, and usually stored in memory; in an analog device (such as an analog video camera), they are processed into a