Ground Data Replay And Analysis System

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

Statement of the question. Give an example of how a flight operational quality assurance (FOQA) can be used to improve aviation safety. The data gathered should explain how FOQA would benefit the aviation industry. What are the main strengths of a FOQA, and what are their weaknesses?

Program outcomes addressed by this question.

Outcome 1. The use of critical thinking will be addressed in this question in the discussion of flight operational quality assurance.

Outcome 2. Evaluating voluntary safety data associated with FOQA can help improve aviation safety through the flight data recorded. The student will explain how the gathering of flight data will develop a trend that needs to be analyzed in order to better understand mistakes. Each mistake made in flight must be corrected and addressed by the FOQA coordinator.

Outcome 3. The application of information competency will be accomplished by gathering creditable information through credible sources that will support developed questions pertaining to flight operational quality assurance (FOQA).

Outcome 4. The communication competency will be satisfied through the effectiveness of the student's writing skills, the research gathered, and the effectiveness of information delivery.

Outcome 5. The Scientific Literacy competency will be satisfied by explaining how human factors are operational risks associated within the aviation industry. The student will explain how the FOQA program evaluates the operator’s overall operational risk and prevention program. Addressing and identifying risk will enhance safety overall.

Outcome 6. The Cultural Literacy competency will be satisfied by the research gathered by the student. The research will explain how the uses of flight operational quality assurance differ from those of a safety management system.

Outcome 7. The Life Long Personal Growth competency will be satisfied by the student discussing how flight operational quality assurance increases performance in safety.

Outcome 8. The Aeronautical Science competency will be satisfied through a detailed examination of the differing types of human factors associated with the aviation industry, and how the use of a flight operational quality assurance improves mission readiness.

Outcome 9. The Aviation Legislation and Law competency will be satisfied by examining the different types of regulations needed to run and operate a corporate flight department through the use of FOQA.

Outcome 10. The Aviation Safety competency will be satisfied by discussing how following strict adherence to safety regulations and the use of FOQA program will aid in maintaining a good safety record. Keeping a well-maintained flight department will help avoid legality issues and fines and, overall, maintain low insurance costs.

Outcome 11. The Aviation Management and Operations competency will be satisfied by explaining how quality assurance may benefit in understanding human factors and consider ways to mitigate risk through the use of flight operational quality assurance.

Abstract

In recent years, Federal Aviation Administration and the air transport industry have sought additional means of identifying potential safety hazard. In the paper, one of the means, Flight Operational Quality assurance (FOQA) is evaluated. The way in which FOQA can be used to improve the accidents in the aviation industry is explained. Basing on the experiences of foreign carriers, and the results of several FAA-sponsored studies and input received from industry safety forum, it has been concluded that wide implementation of FOQA programs could have significant potential to reduce air carrier accident rates below the current level. In the paper, an explanation is given of how the gathering of flight data develops a trend that is needed for analysis and understanding of the cause of accidents. An effective procedure of a FOQA program, which when followed, evaluates the operator’s operational risk and prevention program are presented. The elements of the FOQA that identify risk and enhance safety are addressed. The regulations needed to operate a corporate flight department through the use of FOQA are not left out. In the paper that is explained as a way of avoiding the legal issues and fines that lead to losses and increased costs to the organization. By reading through the paper, the importance of developing, implementing and controlling FOQA is understood.

Introduction

Flight Operational Quality Assurance (FOQA) is a safety program that was designed to improve safety in the aviation industry (U.S. Department of Transportation and Federal Aviation Administration, 2004). In the method, data generated by the aircraft as it moves from a point to the other, is captured and analyzed. The data is then used to identify and rectify the inefficiencies in the various areas of flight operation. FOQA is used by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to identify and analyze the trends of operational risks inherent in the National Airspace system (NAS), flight operation, and Air Traffic Control (ATC) and airport operations. The adverse safety trends are realized early in advance. When the trends are corrected, the accidents are avoided, but when the adverse trends are not corrected early, it could lead to accidents. For the FOQA program to be successful there should be an application of corrective measures and follow up, so as to make sure that the risky conditions are effectively corrected.

FOQA program components

Airborne Data recording systems

The systems acquire and capture the necessary in-flight information. The systems include specific aircraft data input sources and equipment for recording and storing the data. The data here is gathered through onboard sensors, which measure significant aspects of aircraft operation. The information is then carried out to the eventual destination via data buses. The data is then collected by interfacing with the buses. Airborne equipment is used to process and analyze collected data and display it to the pilot during flight or on the ground and transmit the data to a GDRAS.

Ground Data Replay and Analysis System (GDRAS)

The GDRAS is capable of; Transforming flight-recorded data into a usable format for Processing data , Generating various reports and visualizing data so as to help air carrier personnel in interpreting events, detecting events and Routine operational management (ROM)’s that are being monitored and tracked.

Air/Ground Data Transfers is another component of FOQA program. Determining and implementing the process of getting data from aircraft onboard recording system to the GDRAS for analysis is costly. The operators must therefore consider: Scheduling of the removal of the recording medium and forwarding of data to the GDRAS location. The methods used for transferring data to the GDRAS consist of Ground-based transportation, electronic transmission and wireless transmission.

In the Ground-Based Transportation Electronic Transmission, the storage medium is mailed from the maintenance location by the use of regular mail or company mail. When using the system, a tracking system should be developed so that the recording medium and location can be verified and documentation of data maintained. Remote data transmission from the aircraft maintenance location to the GDRAS is made possible by using download equipment which interface with the aircraft. Electronic transmission is more efficient but requires larger sufficient data transmitting capability from remote maintenance locations to the location of the GDRAS (U.S. Department of Transportation and Federal Aviation Administration, 2004).

In the program, a routine collection and analysis of the gathered data generated at the time of the flight operations is usually done. The program provides total information of the entire flight operations environment. The data gathered in the program is unique, as it provides objective information that no other method can provide (Tsuruta and Embry-Riddle Aeronautical

University, 2008). In case of increased risk, the program identifies the situation and allows the operator to react early and correct the actions before an accident occurs. The program is interfaced and coordinated with other safety programs such as Advanced qualified program(AQP), pilot reporting system, Aviation Safety Action Program(ASAP) and voluntary Disclosure Reporting Program (VDRP). The FOQA program is an indispensable tool in the overall operational risk assessment and prevention program.

The data in a FOQA program is collected from the aircraft by the use of a significant acquisition device such as Quick Access Recorder (QAR) or Flight Data Recorder (FDR). In the transmission methods, the data is periodically retrieved and sent to the air carrier’s FOQA office for it to be analyzed. Specialized processing and analysis software known as Ground Data Reply and Analysis System (GDRAS) is normally used in validating and analyzing the data. The software converts the gathered data into useful information. The software, GDRAS transforms the data into an appropriate format for analysis. It then generates the reports and visualizations for analysis of the collected data by the personnel. The air carrier’s operational standards determine the routine operational measurements.

The events could be those falling outside the normal operating boundaries, event categories or Routine Operational Measurement (ROM). The FOQA management team reviews the events and then assesses the validity of the events and their potential significance. The FOQA events are then marked for further inquiry. Aggregate FOQA data best determine the cause of systemic problems that are to be corrected. The individual data, when aggregated into categories, greatly assist the analyst to find trends and patterns. An analysis may be conducted on the average maximum rate of descent below 2000 feet by airport by fleet type. Related invents will indicate that the area that requires investigation. In the analysis, the suggestion may be that all the fleets are experiencing a high descent rate at a certain point. The information is useful as it can point out the source of the problem. That will most likely suggest the nature of the right corrective action to be undertaken.

Data processing

In processing air data, the data that are to be used to determine the flight crew member identity is usually removed from the electronic record. In FOQA programs, the specific flight crew associated with the FOQA event is identified. That enables a follow-up of the individual crewmembers concerning the FOQA events. The follow-up will be accomplished by the line captain who is provided with a secure means of identifying information for a period of time.

In FOQA, two types of analysis are used. The two are parameter exceeding analysis and statistical analysis.

Data Analysis techniques

The exceedance analysis involves setting specific limit for the GDRAS to detect for a particular parameter. An example is that of a GDRAS programmed to detect every time an aircraft roles at an angle that exceeds 45 degrees. The trend could be got from several flights to determine the number of excedeence offering per flight segment. The phase of flight, airport or runway could be trended depending on the type of event. The levels of exceedance can also be programmed for particular events, for example a higher risk level may be associated with an occurrence where the bank angle exceeds 60 degrees. In such a case, the line captain may contact the crewmember for more investigation (Tsuruta and Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, 2008).

In the statistical analysis technique, the profiles of maintenance, flight or engineering operational procedures are created. The profile uses several measures to build distributions of various criteria. Risk is determined based on the mean and deviation from the mean. A profile would be used to measure different criteria of an approach. The approach could be the rate of descent, airspeed, power setting or configuration. The GDRAS could be used to capture the maximum airspeed of every flight on final approach. From the profile, a series of distributions will show a picture of how the flights are performing. It can then be determined when an approach may lead to unstable landing. This technique can also use distributions to determine the phase of flight, airports or aircraft type. With an established baseline, the data could be monitored so as to track the trend of occurrence. In the statistical analysis technique, data from all flights is used to determine risk for an airline without focusing on specific exceedance. By using data distributions, a risk assessment process may be developed by establishing a baseline for trending data and determining critical safety concerns. Statistical analysis looks at the overall performance of an airline’s operation (Tsuruta and Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, 2008).

Increase in safety performance

For a successful FOQA program, the carrier’s individual needs and situations should be addressed. The FOQA program should adopt the best practices so as to be successful. In establishing and implementing a FOQA, the first phase involves the decision to establish the program. The FOQA plan should define the system that will meet the user’s needs. The plan should also define how the system will integrate with the stakeholders. A FOQA steering committee is preferable since the first phase requires cooperation and coordination among the various departments. Mechanisms to communicate the current status and progress should be established. There should be no underestimation since the process requires quite a lot of effort and time. Members of the steering committee define its members, should meet regularly and identify the stakeholders early in advance.

Implementation and operation

The scope of the FOQA, the organizational issues, resource requirements and upper management support should be known in the initial implementation phase. It should be made sure that the group should participate. Establishing a steering committee does the following: 1. Formalize the operators intention to initiate the program thereby demonstrating a commitment to the program’s value and costs. 2. Provide an early opportunity to identify the appropriate stakeholders from various air carrier departments in the program development process. 3. Communicate the vision of the carrier FOQA program. Goals that are meaningful and measurable should be defined. The expected use of data and the critical success factors should also be defined (United States, 2009).

The next step after the initial one is the implementation and operation step. It would be useless to have a good plan and fail to implement it. The tasks that were outlined in the initial stage are performed. The technology selected is installed in an effort to administering the program. The security policies and procedures defined in the first phase should be implemented and tested to find out their effectiveness.

The line captain chosen as the gatekeeper should be trained on managing the mechanisms for protecting and controlling data. GDRAS users should be instructed on how to handle problems. A regular audit of the security mechanism should be carried out. The equipments such as the airborne and GDRAS should then be installed. This will involve effort and time, especially if the equipment requires Supplemental type Certificate (STC).

The personnel who are to install the equipments may require training both before and during installation. Once the system is fully operational, the end users should undergo training on the product usage and data interpretation. The procedures fro retrieving the media on which the FOQA data is recorded should be availed. The media on which data are recorded are optical disks or personal computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) cards. The procedures should be developed and tested for accuracy and completeness. The stakeholder’s confidence depends on the data’s accuracy, reliability and completeness. Documentation should be made so as to ensure that there is consistent administration of the program.

Once the FOQA program is operational, reviews should be made of all the program’s aspects. The review assists in identifying when the program needs to be updated. With the assimilation of new technologies, modification of event definitions and changing structures program, changes occur in the carrier’s FOQA. The changes will however cause disparity between the implemented and the documented plan. The changes have to be submitted to the Federal aviation administration (FAA) for acceptance. Since the FOQA program is not static, the program should be able to accommodate new uses for data. New equipment should be able to capture and analyze the data. The benefits of the program should be communicated, and the costs and benefits should be tracked. The emerging technologies should be evaluated. Emerging technologies have the potential to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the facets of a FOQA program.

Difference between FOQA and safety management system

FOQA captures analyses and visualizes the data generated by aircraft moving from one point to another point. With the information gathered in that movement, new ways to improve flight safety are developed. Safety management systems provide a systematic way to identify hazards and control risk effectively with three imperatives; ethical, legal and financial in mind.

Legal issues

To avoid legal issues, In case of changes the operators of FOQA programs should provide the FAA with FOQA data in a manner that is acceptable to the administrator. There should be regular briefings with the FAA certificate Management Office (CMO). The FOQA information should also be shared from an operators program with other operators. That will provide benefit to the operator’s overall safety program. The sharing can be through industry associations or directly between operators depending on the scope of the issue.

Advantages of FOQA

The voluntarily collected data of Flight Operations Quality Assurance output would continuously be used to assess the carrier safety and suggest recommendations for improvement. In FOQA programs, the specific flight crew associated with the FOQA event is identified. FOQA provides continuous audit of the pilot performance. FOQA is useful as it is used to assess effective training, communication with the crew and briefing systems. FOQA pools data to identify fuel inefficiencies and environmental infringements.

Difficulties

There are difficulties faced when implementing the FOQA program. Failure of understanding the program’s benefits as compared to cost has led to a high level of lack of motivation. The other difficulty is cost of implementing the program. The data-buses in modern aircraft have precluded expensive modification and re-certification of air craft wiring. The other difficulty is that which is associated with technical solutions and standards. It is exceedingly difficult for a FOQA system to synchronize data from multiple sources.

Conclusion

Flight Operational Quality Assurance (FOQA) is indeed a safety program that performs its aim of improving safety in the aviation industry, just as the designers intended. In the method, where data is generated by the aircraft as it moves from a point to the other and captured, and analyzed trends are observed and risks eliminated. That is made possible by the data being used to identify and rectify the inefficiencies in the various areas of flight operation. FOQA are effectively used by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to identify and analyze the trends of operational risks inherent in the National Airspace system (NAS), flight operation, and Air Traffic Control (ATC) and airport operations. That enhances speedy realization of adverse safety trends which are then dealt with on the spot.

From the evaluation, when the trends are corrected, the accidents are avoided, but when the adverse trends are not corrected early, FOQA’s objectives are not met. For the FOQA program to be successful, it has been made known that there should be an application of corrective measures and follow up, so as to make sure that the risky conditions are effectively corrected. In the program, a routine collection and analysis of the gathered data generated at the time of the flight operations should be done. The program provides total information of the entire flight operations environment.

The data gathered in the program is unique, as it provides objective information that no other method can provide. In case of increased risk, the program identifies the situation and allows the operator to react early and correct the actions before an accident occurs. The program is interfaced and coordinated with other safety programs such as Advanced qualified program(AQP), pilot reporting system, Aviation Safety Action Program(ASAP) and voluntary Disclosure Reporting Program (VDRP). The FOQA program is therefore an powerful tool that should be effectively used in the overall operational risk assessment and prevention program.

Comprehensive Question 5

Statement of the question. Give an example of an accident that occurred where situational awareness was absent. What lead up to the accident, and how could it have been prevented? What changes in procedures or regulations, if any, followed the investigation of the accident?

Program outcomes addressed by this question.

Outcome 1. The use of critical thinking will be addressed in this question in the discussion of what factors led to the accident and what preventative measures could have addressed the incident and have it result in a different outcome.

Outcome 2. Evaluating data associated with the air traffic controller’s incidents may develop a plan to correct issues with the language barrier. The student will analyze and explain the importance of communication.

Outcome 3. The application of information competency will be accomplished by gathering credible information through credible sources that will support developed questions pertaining to the developed scenario resulting in an accident.

Outcome 4. The communication competency will be satisfied through the effectiveness of the student's writing skills, the research gathered, and the effectiveness of information delivery

Outcome 6. The Cultural Literacy competency will be satisfied by showing how differences in cultures, language barriers, or procedures can lead to an accident.

Outcome 7. The Life Long Personal Growth competency will be satisfied by showing how constant upkeep of training and strict adherence to regulations can help regulate procedures. Having a uniform base of instructions can eliminate any confusion an organization would encounter. A synchronizing of procedures across the globe will ensure that all organizations remain at a constant level of understanding.

Outcome 8. The Aeronautical Science competency will be satisfied with an explanation of how failing to confirm and understand ATC procedures and communications can lead to an accident.

Outcome 9. The Aviation Legislation and Law competency will be satisfied by examining the different types of regulations needed to run and operate a corporate flight department through the type of scenario used in this question.

Outcome 10. The Aviation Safety competency will be satisfied by showing how changes in procedures and making more universal ATC procedures have led to a lower accident rate.

Outcome 11. The Aviation Management and Operations competency will be satisfied by discussing the responsibilities ATC has to be certain their instructions were understood and complied with, as well as the flight crew's responsibility to be certain of their surroundings.

Abstract

In the aviation industry, maintaining a high level of situation awareness is of immense importance. When a high level of situation awareness is maintained the human errors that lead to fatal accidents will be reduced. Maintaining a high level of human awareness is challenging due to the complex aviation environment. An example of an air accident that was caused by lack of situation awareness is the American Airlines Flight 965 accident, which occurred near Cali, Columbia on the 20th of December, 1995. The crew lost situational awareness and caused a fatal controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) accident. An investigation was carried out, with Aeronautica Civil as the lead agency under the regulations of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), Boeing, Applied Pilots Association (APA) and the American Airlines assisted in the investigation. After the investigations were over, there were some changes made in the ATC procedures which were aimed at lowering the air accident rates of that kind.

Introduction

Air accidents occur due to human errors, technical defects and weather conditions. Among the air accidents caused by humans, there are those caused by poor human skills, incorrect decisions and lack of situational awareness. Situational awareness is paramount in the protection of fatal accidents, which mostly occur as a result of lack of situational awareness. Situational awareness is the perception of the elements in the environment within a volume of time and space, the understanding of their meaning and the projection of their status in their near future (Endsley, 1994). Situational awareness involves the perception of critical factors in the environment, understanding the meaning of the factors and understanding what will happen due to the presence of the factors in the environment in the near future. By understanding what will happen in the near future as a result of the factors in the environment, the pilots function effectively and timely.

Example of accident due to situational awareness

An example of an accident that occurred due to lack of situational awareness was that of flight 965 accident that occurred near Cali, Colombia on the 20th day of December 1995. According to their employee records, past employment and flight experience, the captain and the first officer of the flight were both qualified and competent (Sweet, 2006). They had thirty five years experience and had 19, 000 flight hours in total. The aircraft, Boeing 757-233 N651AA was air worthy since it had about 13, 782 total hours and there was no any kind of discrepancy items listed of the aircraft on its maintenance log. The aircraft had no previous accident history (Sweet, 2006). On that particular day and within two hours time of the flight’s departure from Miami Florida, it did not encounter any kind of unfavourable weather conditions.

How it happened

The pilot was given the right landing procedure, to land on Runway 01, utilizing the precision approach instrument Landing system (ILS). After getting the instructions and being informed that the wind conditions were calm the crew opted to approach runway 19, utilizing the VOR-DME approach. The crew saw that the latitude was high for the position they were in and therefore got permission to decent. The crew was also cleared for the VOR-DME runway 19 approach. The first office applied air brakes so as to facilitate the descent of the air craft. The crew made an effort to determine the right flight path. They pulled the Rozo one arrival chart to assist them in getting the right flight path. Confusion occurred as a result of the captain’s request for a clearance amendment from the flight controller so as to fly to the Rozo NDB. The controller in response restated the original clearance. The aircraft’s pilot understood the transmission to be an affirmative clearance amendment. This led to the captain’s selection of the wrong NDB in the FMS. Despite the arousal of the crew’s suspicion due to the computer generated flight path change, the crew continued with the flight path. Immediately after undertaking the wrong flight path, the ground proximity warning system alerted the crew of a terrain conflict. The crew tried to make a recovery, but it was too late as a controlled flight into terrain accident occurred and the plane crashed into El Deluvio. The accident was fatal as all aboard were killed apart from for persons (Sweet, 2006).

Knowledge of state of environment

So as, to perform well in the ever changing flight environment, the aircrew must know up to date picture of the state of the environment apart from knowing how to operate the aircraft, proper tactics, procedures and flight rules. In the case of flight 965, the accident was caused by lack of situational awareness. The pilot and the first officer both had the right operational skills, they had the proper tactics and they knew procedures and the flight rules, but they did not know the up to date picture of the state of the environment. At first there was delayed departure, which probably caused passenger discontent. That resulted to impaired judgment within the crew. They became so much concerned with saving time and therefore they forego the standard operational approach procedures into Cali (Sweet, 2006). The decision may have not been that critical but what was critical was the lack of adequate preparation for the approach. For the sudden change to have taken place, it required a different arrival procedure which at that instance could not be availed. That then led to drastic measures undertaken by the crew; sudden deployment of air brakes and short-notice kind of crew briefing for the approach. In the midst of the confusion, the captain attempted to select the navigational aid by inputting the identifier that was on the paper chart. Unfortunately, the identifier did not correspond with the identifier that was within the FMS. There was a failure in identification of the choice therefore the FMS indicated a flight path which the crew never expected. The crew pressed on anyway, despite their suspicions and instead of clarifying their position.

Importance of communication

In the accident, there was no effective communication. In the flight 965 accident, the pilot and the first officer were both experienced and probably were well versed with the safety measures. Without an effective communication however, there is a likelihood that an error occurs.

If there was a high level of situational awareness, the accident could have been avoided. Due to the importance and significance of the challenge that the situational awareness it posses, new ways to improve situational awareness are supposed to be a drive for the development of new aircraft systems. To improve the situational awareness, there should be aircraft designs and training programs which will guide the crew on a clear understanding of the situational awareness requirements in the flight domain, individual, system and on the environmental factors which affect the situational awareness (Prevett and Wickens, 1994). After understanding that, a process should then be designed to address the situational awareness in a systematic way. The perception of the element in the environment would be of considerable assistance to the flight 965 crew. By perceiving the elements of the environment, the pilot and the first officer would have perceived the status, attributes and dynamics of the relevant elements in the environment. The element to be perceived is the terrain, the aircraft, the system status and the warning lights and their relevant characteristics. Doing that is taxing but worthwhile.

The crew could have saved the situation had they comprehended the current situation at the time. Comprehending the situation is based on a synthesis of the elements in the environment. Comprehending the situation goes beyond being aware of the present elements. It includes the understanding of one’s goals in light of the significance of those elements. The crew should have projected the future status. Projecting the future status is the ability to project future actions of the elements in the environment in every near term that forms the highest level of situational awareness.

Situational awareness requirements

There are certain situational awareness requirements that the crew had to have or should have. The elucidation of environmental elements, identifying the things which the aircrew needs to perceive and understanding the projects are specific to individual systems and must be determined for a particular class of aircraft and missions. There are certain elements however, which are needed for situational awareness across many types of aircraft systems. The pilot should have the geographical situation awareness. The geographical situation awareness means the crew is aware of the location of own craft, other craft, terrain features, airports, cities, waypoints and navigation fixes. The navigation fixes are positive relative to designated features, runway and taxiway assignments, path to desired locations and climb or descent points (Prevett and Wickens, 1994).

Spatial or temporal features mean that the crew is aware of the attitude, altitude, heading, velocity, vertical velocity and flight path. Concerning the flight path issues such as deviation from the flight plan and clearances are of concern, the aircraft capabilities, projected flight path and projected landing time. System situation awareness means the system status is known, the functioning and settings such as the radio settings, altimeter and the transponder equipment are known. There should be no deviations from the correct settings of the ATC communications that are present. There should also be no deviations from flight modes and automation entries and settings. The crew should be aware of the impact of the system degrades and settings present on the system performance and flight safety. The time and distance available on fuel should be known by the crew.

The other element of awareness in is the environmental situation awareness. The crew should be well aware of the weather formations. The weather formations are the area and altitudes affected and movement. The crew should be concerned with the weather formations which could impair their judgments and result into fatalities. What to observe for in the weather are the temperature, icing, ceilings, clouds, fog, sun, visibility, turbulence, winds and microburst. The weather formations that are unfavorable could easily lead to controlled flight into terrain. There are certain attitudes to avoid when the crew is flying in a foggy weather condition or when it is cloudy and so on. The crew should make an effort to look at projected weather conditions. Tactical situation awareness implies that the crew is able to identify the tactical status, type, capabilities, location and flight dynamics of other aircraft.

Change of procedures

Bearing in mind the different situational awareness, a number of things or procedures were changed after, after analyzing the flight 965 case. The manufactures should modify the FMS logic so that the intermediate waypoints are not erased upon selection of "direct to" function. FMS should move maps that display terminal area information which is consistent with the printed charts. It required the airlines to better train the pilots on the unique features of the FMS including radio communications and ATC phraseology. The airlines should evaluate the possibility of having speed brakes stow automatically upon the "go-ground" flight configuration and also develop a training program for controlled flight into terrain ((Wright, 1974).

There are a number of individual factors that may influence situation awareness. It is also beneficial to understand them in ensuring that the lack of situation awareness doses not cause fatal aircraft accidents. The situation awareness in aviation is challenged by limitations of human attention and working memory. To overcome the limitations, there is a need for the development of a long term memory stores and enhancement of automatic actions through experience and training. Experience and training are seen as the primary mechanisms to be used to overcome the limitations caused by human attention and working memory. With human attention and working memory, a high level of situation awareness and successful performance is likely to be achieved. The individual factors could be the contributing factor to the flight 965 accident. To reduce such an accident from happening, direct attention is needed for perceiving and processing the environment to form situation awareness for selecting actions and responses.

In an aviation environment which is complex and ever changing, the complex task and the information overload are likely to overcome or rather overwhelm the aircrew’s limited attention capacity (Wright, 1974). With the limited attention to a situation, more attention will be given to other elements and loss will be there for other situation awareness. The resultant lack of situation awareness likely leads to poor decision making process and therefore lead to human error and air fatalities. The working memory can lead to a limit on the situation awareness since in the absence of the other mechanisms, the person’s active processing of information must occur in the working memory. The data which is perceived should then be comprehended. Any kind of information which is new to the crew must be combined with the existing knowledge and a picture of the situation developed. This could easily overload the pilot’s working memory which is naturally limited, leaving no room for the processing of new information. Projections of future status and the following decisions of the appropriate actions also depend on the working memory (Wright, 1974). This also imposes a heavy load on the working memory.

Overcoming lack of situational awareness as a result of work overload

To cope with that, there are certain mechanisms developed. In practice, the aircrew is enabled to use their long term memory stores. They use the long term memory in the form of schemata and mental models to overcome the limits for certain classes of situations. The mechanisms give a provision for comprehension of information and projection of future events. The mechanism also gives provision for making a decision on the basis of information that is not complete and that which is uncertain. A developed mental model provides knowledge of relevant elements of the system which can be used to direct attention. The mental process can also provide a means to integrate the elements and form comprehend their meaning. The process also provides a mechanism for projecting future states of the system basing on the current state and an understanding of the dynamics.

In trying to cope with the workload due to the complexity of the pilot’s environment, the goal driven processing of dynamic and complex information, people have been made to switch between data driven processing to goal driven processing. In a goal driven processing, situation awareness is affected by the aircrew’s goals and the expectations which influence how information is perceived and how information is interpreted. Situational awareness is also affected by the way in which information is processed. By automatically processing information, the attention limits may be easily overcome. In this case, the actions become a habit over a period of time. This kind of processing provides good performance without much attention allocation. It also allows one to make decisions in complex aviation environments. It thus enhances the achievement of situation awareness which is a leading cause of human errors that cause air accidents in the aviation industry.

Future Directions

Ways of effectively delivering critical cues, ensuring accurate expectations, methods which will assist the pilots to deploy attention effectively and methods of preventing the disruption of attention should be developed. New ways of training the aircrew should also be developed. The new ways of training should be aimed at the crew’s achievement of a better situation awareness with a given design. The crew should be able to identify a prototypical situation that are of concern and associated with the models by recognizing the fundamental cues and what they mean.

Conclusion

Air accidents occur due to human errors, technical defects and weather conditions. The most cause to the air accidents is due to human error. Lack of situational awareness is the leading cause among the human errors. Situational awareness is crucial in the protection of fatal accidents, which might occur as a result of lack of situational awareness. Situational awareness is the perception of the elements in the environment within a volume of time and space, the understanding of their meaning and the projection of their status in their near future (Endsley, 1994). The accident could therefore have been avoided had there been situational awareness in situations of that time. There should be regulation put in place to safeguard and reduce situations in which accidents are caused due to lack of situation awareness. The ATC procedures should be changed and made universal to avoid the lack of situation awareness which may lead to accidents. The ATC instructions should be well understood, and the flight crews should be aware of their surroundings.