Examples Of Innovation And Their Origin

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

ABDULLAHI AB

Innovation is everywhere. In the world of goods (technology) certainly, but also in the realm of words. Innovation is discussed in scientific and technical literature, in social sciences such as sociology, management and economics, and in the humanities and arts. Innovation is also a central idea in the popular imaginary, in the media and in public policy. How has innovation originated and developed in our society?

This essay aims at carrying out several researches base on the origins of innovation mainly engineering innovations as well as investigating their relative merits with respect to four case studies which are listed and discussed below. Base on the results of several researches, the determinants of complexity and degrees of novelty in the emergence of new innovations were linked up to two important dimensions of technological change both consisting of the degree of novelty of the innovation (incremental/radical) and the complexity of the innovation (simple/complex). Using a novel dataset of major Finish innovations from 1985-1998, it was examined that the role of technological opportunities, customers, breadth of collaboration with different communities of practice, the breadth of the sources of inspiration for the innovation, and competitive pressures in the major cause of the emergence of innovations. The origins of different types of innovations are insufficiently understood. Even though there is awareness that the origins of an innovation may affect the degree of novelty in the innovation (see for instance, Ahuja and Lampert 2001, Rosenkopf and Nerkar 2001) and that innovations differ in their complexity (see for instance, Tushman and Rosenkopf 1992, Singh 1997), there are to our knowledge no studies that combine the radicalness and complexity of innovations in attempts to understand the origins of new innovations.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Innovation is the development of new values through solutions that meet new requirements, inarticulate needs, or old customer and market needs in value adding new ways. This is accomplished through more effective products, processes, services, technologies, or ideas that are readily available to markets, governments, and society. Innovation is the means to deliver profit, productivity and other benefits to business. This always achieved by taking active decisions, mobilising and coordinating resources, capabilities, and creativity to make it happen. Innovations can be classified according to many different dimensions. Perhaps the most used distinction in innovation studies is the distinction between incremental and radical innovation (see for instance, Mansfield 1968, Freeman and Soete 1997). According to Gatignon et al. (2002), incremental innovations can be defined as "those innovations that improve price/performance at a rate consistent with the current technological trajectory", while radical innovations "advance the price/performance frontier by much more than the existing rate of progress." However – as pointed out by Henderson and Clark (1990), this distinction may fail to account for important aspects of technological change, given that innovation may be more or less systemic no matter whether the innovation is incremental or radical. As such there is strong evidence that there are numerous technical innovations that involve moderate changes in technology, but have dramatic competitive consequences (Clark 1987).

Simon (1969: 86) defines a complex system in general terms as "one made up of a large number of parts that interact in non-simple way." Accordingly, complexity concerns both the number of the parts involved in the system and the nature of the interconnections among those parts. Merges and Nelson (1990) make the distinction between discrete and complex technologies in the context of the appropriation of the returns from innovation. In the context of socio-political effects of innovation, Tushman and Rosenkopf (1992) develop a typology of products ranging from simple to complex. These are: (a) non-assembled products, (b) simple assembled products, (c) closed systems, and (d) open systems. Accordingly, the authors examine the nature and determinants of the product technologies for each of the four categories. Building on Tushman and Rosenkopf (1992), Soh and Roberts (2003) define complex technologies to be "technological systems involving a large number of inter-related subsystems arranged in a hierarchical order". Hence, modularity can be seen to be one way to manage complexity by grouping elements into a smaller number of subsystems (Simon 1969, Langlois 2002).

The degree of complexity encompasses two dimensions of complexity: artefactual complexity and development complexity. Artefactual complexity refers to the degree of complexity of the final product and developmental complexity refers to the degree of complexity involved in design and production of the product. Artefactually complex products involve systems of modules and components that need to be integrated in order to allow the product to be functional. Developmentally complex products require extensive design and production processes in order to be produced, but they may themselves be relatively simple artefactually products. For example, pharmaceutical products, such as aspirin, are artefactually simple, but developmentally complex and capital goods, such as an electricity network, are simple to construct but complex to integrate. In our study innovations have to have at least medium artefactual complexity and high developmental complexity in order to be deemed "complex" rather than "simple". However, it should be underscored that while this paper is concerned with different types of innovation in terms of the origins of different types of innovation, it is not concerned with the consequences of innovation – radical or complex.

There are several origins of innovation, according to Peter F. Drucker, the general sources of innovations are different changes in industry structure, in market structure, in local and global demographics, in human perception, mood and meaning, in the amount of already available scientific knowledge, internet research, developing of people skills, language development, and cultural background. In the simplest linear model of innovation the traditionally recognized source is manufacturer innovation. This is where an agent (person or business) innovates in order to sell the innovation. Another source of innovation, only now becoming widely recognized, is end-user innovation. This is where an agent (person or company) develops an innovation for their own (personal or in-house) use because existing products do not meet their needs.

Conclusively, the Origin of Innovation: "innovation is the result of: a shock (a major failure) to the system, problemistic search, random variability in experimentation, deliberate decision to invest in learning, match between a need and ideas which already exist, formal vehicles for stimulating innovation such as research and development, managerial risk seeking or risk averse behavior, availability of slack resources, management philosophy and organizational climate, and, customer needs".

INNOVATION

Innovation generally refers to renewing, changing or creating more effective processes, products or ways of doing things.

For businesses, this could mean implementing new ideas, creating dynamic products or improving your existing services. Innovation can be a catalyst for the growth and success of your business, and help you adapt and grow in the marketplace. The historical concept of innovation typically comprises of; imitation, invention, discovery, imagination, ingenuity, cultural change, social change, organizational change, political innovation, creativity, technological change, technological innovation, and commercialized innovation.

Being innovative does not mean inventing; innovation can mean changing your business model and adapting to changes in your environment to deliver better products or services. Successful innovation should be an in-built part of your business strategy and the strategic vision, where you create an environment and lead in innovative thinking and creative problem solving.

Some common themes around innovation

Conduct an analysis of the market environment, your customers wants and needs and competitors. Be open to new ideas and adaptive to change. Develop a strategic responsive plan which includes innovation as a key business process across the entire business. Leadership in innovation. Train and empower employees to think innovatively from the top down. Inspirational leadership and motivation is what drives innovation in business. Connect with customers and employees to generate ideas for improving processes, products and services both internally and externally. Seek advice. Utilise available resources, business advisors, grants and assistance to drive innovation in your business. This may include seeking Intellectual Property (IP) protection for commercialisation of ideas.

The point to remember is that, innovation is the key to competitive advantage for most businesses.

EXAMPLES OF INNOVATION AND THEIR ORIGIN

AERONAUTICAL INNOVATION

For hundreds of years prior to the advent of human flight, people dreamed about aeronautics. Numerous innovative attempts at flight showcased the participants’ creativity, determination, and lack of knowledge [Chanute, O., Progress in Flying Machines, The American Engineer and Railroad Journal, N.Y., 1894].[Now available as a Dover paperback]. With the first truly successful gliders by Lilienthal [Lilienthal, O., Birdflight as the Basis of Aviation, first published in German 1889, translation published by Longmans, Green, & Co., London 1911]. in the 1890’s and the first powered flights by the Wright brothers about 10 years later, the combination of new technologies, improved understanding of aerodynamics, and a passion for flight led to a revolution that changed our world in many respects. Innovations in aeronautics were numerous over the subsequent fifty years, from the Wright Flyer to passenger-carrying aircraft in just a few years, to the Boeing 367-80, 707 prototypes, which flew in 1954. Despite the dramatic innovations over the first fifty years of air transportation, or perhaps because of them, modern aircraft appear almost unchanged from their ancestors. And although the similar appearance belies a dramatic reduction in fuel usage and costs, other measures of performance have shown little change in decades.

This innovation has come about mainly as result of war, cargo and people transportation, reconnaissance and surveillance, and knowledge sake such as exploration of planets such as Mars or Titan allowing high resolution imagery and measurements of atmospheric and magnetic properties over a large region and bridging the scale and resolution measurement gaps between global-scale orbiters and higher resolution landers or rovers.

ASSISTIVE INNOVATION/TECHNOLOGY

Assistive technology is technology used by individuals with disabilities in order to perform functions that might otherwise be difficult or impossible. Assistive technology can include mobility devices such as walkers and wheelchairs, as well as hardware, software, and peripherals that assist people with disabilities in accessing computers or other information technologies. A formal, legal definition of assistive technology was first published in the Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988 (The Tech Act). This act was amended in 1994; in 1998, it was repealed and replaced with the Assistive Technology Act of 1998 ("AT Act"). Throughout this history, the original definition of assistive technology remained consistent. This same definition was used in the Access Board's Electronic and Information Technology Accessibility Standards, developed as required by 1998 amendments to Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act.

Assistive Innovations specialises in supplying high-end technological products for the rehabilitation market, specifically for people living with special abilities. Decades of research in the fields of adult learning, professional development, technical assistance, knowledge development, and implementation science have identified best practices in technology training and integration. Successful technology training is planned and intentional, continual, tailored to meet individual teacher needs, and grounded in evidence-based practice (Billig, Sherry, & Havelock, 2005; CEO Forum, 2000; Desimone, Porter, Garet, Yoon, & Birman, 2002; Guskey, 2000; Hamilton et al., 2002; Royer, 2002; Sudsawad, 2007). The question to note was that; how can innovation be nurtured and harnessed in AT development and implementation to take hold and make a difference in the lives of students with disabilities? How can the field ensure that educational and assistive technology is seen as a critical part of the achievement solution for all students? Given the reality that the vast majority of students with disabilities are being served in the general education classroom for most of their day, the need arises and the answer conclusively assumes that; the AT field must: Include innovative uses and interfaces built on the efficiencies and customizability options of mainstream consumer products. Develop devices and systems that can interoperate with existing and future technologies in the school, home, and pockets of consumers to reduce redundancy and improve data-tracking effectiveness. Insist that more students with disabilities have access to and are learning with AT that will promote their achievement and independence. Be guided by related research that informs and is informed by disability research so that products and training reflect the latest knowledge from science, education, and consumer patterns. The evidence base needs to expand to reflect real-world implementation challenges and solutions, with AT training and services delivered collaboratively to general education teachers. Seize the opportunity to create new applications with wide cross-over appeal and reach, breaking down the barriers between educational and assistive technologies and between students with and without disabilities. A tremendous variety of assistive technology is available today, providing the opportunity for nearly all people to access information technology (IT). However, an individual's having proper assistive technology is no guarantee of having access. IT accessibility is dependent on accessible design. IT products must be designed and created in ways that allow all users to access them, including those who use assistive technologies.

INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

On October 24, 1995, the FNC unanimously passed a resolution defining the term Internet. This definition was developed in consultation with members of the internet and intellectual property rights communities. RESOLUTION: The Federal Networking Council (FNC) agrees that the following language reflects our definition of the term "Internet". "Internet" refers to the global information system that -- (i) is logically linked together by a globally unique address space based on the Internet Protocol (IP) or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons; (ii) is able to support communications using the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons, and/or other IP-compatible protocols; and (iii) provides, uses or makes accessible, either publicly or privately, high level services layered on the communications and related infrastructure described herein.

The Internet has revolutionized the computer and communications world like nothing before. The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer set the stage for this unprecedented integration of capabilities. The Internet is at once a world-wide broadcasting capability, a mechanism for information dissemination, and a medium for collaboration and interaction between individuals and their computers without regard for geographic location. The Internet represents one of the most successful examples of the benefits of sustained investment and commitment to research and development of information infrastructure. Beginning with the early research in packet switching, the government, industry and academia have been partners in evolving and deploying this exciting new technology. The first recorded description of the social interactions that could be enabled through networking was a series of memos written by J.C.R. Licklider of MIT in August 1962 discussing his "Galactic Network" concept. He envisioned a globally interconnected set of computers through which everyone could quickly access data and programs from any site. In spirit, the concept was very much like the Internet of today. Licklider was the first head of the computer research program at DARPA [The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) changed its name to Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1971, then back to ARPA in 1993, and back to DARPA in 1996. We refer throughout to DARPA, the current name], starting in October 1962. While at DARPA he convinced his successors at DARPA, Ivan Sutherland, Bob Taylor, and MIT researcher Lawrence G. Roberts, of the importance of this networking concept. There is the technological evolution that began with early research on packet switching and the ARPANET (and related technologies), and where current research continues to expand the horizons of the infrastructure along several dimensions, such as scale, performance, and higher-level functionality. There is the operations and management aspect of a global and complex operational infrastructure. There is the social aspect, which resulted in a broad community of Internauts working together to create and evolve the technology. And there is the commercialization aspect, resulting in an extremely effective transition of research results into a broadly deployed and available information infrastructure.

The Internet today is a widespread information infrastructure, the initial prototype of what is often called the National (or Global or Galactic) Information Infrastructure. Its history is complex and involves many aspects - technological, organizational, and community. And its influence reaches not only to the technical fields of computer communications but throughout society as we move toward increasing use of online tools to accomplish electronic commerce, information acquisition, and community operations.

The Internet has changed much in the two decades since it came into existence. It was conceived in the era of time-sharing, but has survived into the era of personal computers, client-server and peer-to-peer computing, and the network computer. It was designed before LANs existed, but has accommodated that new network technology, as well as the more recent ATM and frame switched services. It was envisioned as supporting a range of functions from file sharing and remote login to resource sharing and collaboration, and has spawned electronic mail and more recently the World Wide Web. But most important, it started as the creation of a small band of dedicated researchers, and has grown to be a commercial success with billions of dollars of annual investment.

The Internet has changed much in the two decades since it came into existence. It was conceived in the era of time-sharing, but has survived into the era of personal computers, client-server and peer-to-peer computing, and the network computer. It was designed before LANs existed, but has accommodated that new network technology, as well as the more recent ATM and frame switched services. It was envisioned as supporting a range of functions from file sharing and remote login to resource sharing and collaboration, and has spawned electronic mail and more recently the World Wide Web. But most important, it started as the creation of a small band of dedicated researchers, and has grown to be a commercial success with billions of dollars of annual investment.

SMART DEVICES

It's been three years since Apple brought the Smartphone to a mass consumer market, but smart phones have actually been around in one form or the other since 1993. The difference between then and now is that early Smartphone’s were primarily used as enterprise devices and were prohibitively expensive for most consumers. But with the enormous success in the innovation of smart devices, carriers have discovered that they can lock in customers for long periods of time by heavily subsidizing their purchases of the latest and hottest smart devices. Smart devices offer a wealth of applications that can address almost every need at the touch of a button. This easy accessibility for consumers and business users alike has played a major role in the popularity of the devices. Furthermore, the functionality that currently exists at the fingertips of hundreds of millions of people around the world is constantly opening up new means of communicating, collaborating, transacting, processing and even analysing. The mobile device itself has transformed from a mere communication device (the handset) to an integrated lifestyle phenomena with convergence (and also divergence to some extent) coming out of the box. One may forget their wallet, keys or watch but existence without the mobile phone is impossible, it is rightly dubbed as the ultimate intimate object, as a true extension of the network in the end-users hands. The Smartphone of today has been strongly influenced from adjacent and converging industries. Overall, it has changed the way communication is perceived and used the result of which is evident with spend or share of customer wallet coming from vastly wider sources. As a tool for mass empowerment the mobile device with the right services (as a holistic solution) has greatly enriched lives and transformed the ‘digital divide to digital dividend/ opportunities. The primary focus of the Smart Device Technology Innovation thrust area is to invent new smart material based device technologies that push the frontier of capabilities.  While it is foreseen that most of these technologies will be initiated by specific automotive applications, the CRL seeks to develop a robust technology base rather than "gadgets".  It is expected that by utilizing smart materials, substantial advances can be made leading to disruptive, leap-frog type technologies versus incremental steps beyond conventional technologies within the market place.  These technologies may be devices, systems or necessary architectural elements (such as packaging, connection, and control algorithms).  By developing new technologies versus specific artifacts/devices, these technologies will have broad application across many vehicle components/systems and relevance to many other industries such as appliance, oil, military, aerospace and medical.

CONCLUSION

This paper looks at innovation as category, and suggests an outline for a genealogical history. It identifies the concepts that have defined innovation through history, from its very first meaning as novelty in the Middle Ages to the most recent interpretations in sociology and economics. The paper suggests a genealogical history of innovation through the following three concepts: Imitation → Invention → Innovation.