Evaluation Of The Employment Of Cyber Capabilities

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

INTRODUCTION

Today Military planners are living in an age where the right information, at the right time, drives greater mission effectiveness. Having information about the enemy has great value if the soldier has it before the moment of engagement. Minutes and even seconds can sometimes mean losing a target or, worse, compromising the safety of friendly forces. The Information Age is changing the way military do business, the tools they use, the opportunities they have, and the threats and risks they face [1] .

In today’s information age, nations rely on computers and the information they carry in almost every aspect of life. There is absolutely no doubt that advanced information and communication technologies and the capabilities that they impart will significantly change the nature of military roles, missions, and methods [2] . Change will come not only of the militaries powerful nation states but also to the militaries of smaller states and non-state actors.

In addition, telecommunications, information technology and the media, sectors that originally operated largely independent of one another, are growing together using the internet in order to interact and become more efficient. The effect of this phenomenon has increased the speed with which information is shared, helped business become more competitive and provided different means to distribute information. This same convergence has made the Internet a prime target as it has the potential to affect the economy, critical infrastructure and limit the freedoms of others in the cyberspace arena .

Cyberspace is defined as a global domain within the information environment consisting of the interdependent network of information technology infrastructures, including the Internet, telecommunications networks, computer systems, and embedded processors and controllers. Moreover cyberspace operations is defined as the employment of cyber capabilities where the primary purpose is to achieve military objectives or effects in or through cyberspace [3] .

Cyber capabilities are vital to Rwanda’s national security. Today the Rwanda Defense Force (RDF) rely on connections to the Internet to perform daily functions and these connections provide hackers access points into the networks where they can steal secrets, disable websites, or infect computers with a malicious software. Furthermore, Internet Can bring rebels or terrorist groups together and facilitate conflict by enabling militants or extremists to share techniques, spread their message, recruit and highlight their activities.

It becomes crucial to RDF to watch network activity of potential adversaries and be able to acquire indications and warnings prior to an attack. By doing such operations, the RDF will gain an understanding of adversaries’ intentions and actions and be able to react accordingly. As stipulated in the Rwanda’s National Constitution, RDF mission is to defend the territorial integrity and national Sovereignty, and in collaboration with other security institutions, contribute to the maintenance, restoration and enforcement of law and order.

The purpose of this research paper therefore is to evaluate the employment of cyber capabilities in RDF. The research will focus on Cyberspace Warfare and Threats, Cyber warfare Capabilities, Offensive and Defensive cyber operations, importance of Cyberspace Operations in RDF, challenges and lessons learnt.

AIM

To evaluate the employment of cyber capabilities in RDF with a view to drawing lessons learnt.

CYBERSPACE WARFARE AND THREATS

The introduction of computing systems and the Internet formed an interconnected, virtual environment that has led to the designation of a fifth war fighting domain known as Cyberspace. This new domain has its own set of unique characteristics and challenges and significantly overlaps operations in all four of the other war fighting domains. Networks, including hardware & software are militarily relevant-their counterparts in other domains like ships, vehicles, airplanes & satellites. Cyberspace traverses the physical domains or land, sea, air, and space through interconnected technological devices [4] . Therefore the traditional military domains of air, land, space and sea have expanded to include cyberspace. There are many similarities between traditional military engagements and cyberspace engagements. Just as military capabilities, such as a Land forces, are created, used, attacked, and defended, so can cyber capabilities be created, used, attacked, and defended.

Cyberspace warfare requires access to friendly, neutral and adversaries systems and one of the main goals these operations are to gain access to these systems in order to facilitate follow-on operations such as exploitation of data, disruption of systems or to gain leverage. They traverses the physical domains or land, sea, air, and space through interconnected technological devices. The technological advances in computer hardware, software and the expansion of the Internet have brought intense threat in the new domain [5] . Therefore, the characteristics that make cyber operations useful allow adversaries to target and directly engage the information advantage of any country. These information engagements have become so critical that the cyberspace medium in which they occur has been added as a new domain for military operations in some countries like United State of America (USA).

The Path to Cyberspace warfare started with Kosovo in the late 1990’s. It was the first war where information and disinformation over the Internet became very important. NATO forces were often fooled by this information. They were so reliant on aerial surveillance that the Serbs put up fake tanks, fake heat sources so as to divert campaigns. More instances, in 2007 in Estonia, they came under attack although later analysis showed it to be more of a cyber riot by patriotic hackers (the Russian Nashi youth group). Similarly occurred in Georgia in 2008, and again in Kyrgyzstan [6] .

Hackers and other individuals trained in software programming and exploiting the intricacies of computer networks are the primary executors of these attacks. These individuals often operate under the auspices and possibly the support of nation-state actors. In the future, if not already common practice, individual cyber warfare units will execute attacks against targets in a cooperative and simultaneous manner [7] . Therefore the domain become very important in sense that everyone who has access to the Internet is potentially vulnerable.

In addition physical limitations such as terrain features, borders or laws do not restrict the flow of electrons from one terminal to another, creating a vulnerability that can be exploited. In addition, International laws are still relatively immature in regard to cyber warfare, and so long as that remains the case, it is very likely that states will leverage this ambiguity to take actions in cyberspace that would be unacceptable in the physical world [8] .

Threats in cyberspace are difficult to define as it is hard to identify the source of attacks and the motives that drive them, or even to foresee the course of an attack as it unfolds. The identification of cyber threats is further complicated by the difficulty in defining the boundaries between national, international, public and private interests and actors. Because threats in cyberspace are global in nature and involve rapid technological developments, the struggle to meet them is ever-changing and increasingly complicated [9] . Therefore, a high-level of training, an advanced legal framework, effective organizational co-operation and the allocation of considerable resources are needed.

As the world increases its connectivity, particularly in government and financial systems, Rwanda government should begun to sense a threat. The cyber security is one of the most important issues we need to pay attention. The increasingly connected nature of our lives only amplifies our vulnerability to cyber attacks and we must act now. Therefore, given the gravity of the threat and of the interests at stake, it is imperative that the comprehensive use of information technology solutions be supported by a high level of security measures and be embedded also in a broad and sophisticated cyber security culture.

CYBERWARFARE CAPABILITIES

Cyberspace is characterized by the use of electronics and the electromagnetic spectrum to store, modify and exchange information via networked systems and physical infrastructures [10] . Cyber warfare (CW) really finds its roots in hacking. To understand CW, hacking must be understood which are talented computer programmers who have learned to exploit systems that the average person does not completely understand.

The Cyber Warfare (CW) can be classified into four basic capabilities. According to Libicki, CW can be used to conduct espionage, cause disruption, cause corruption, and cause distraction. As the world increases its connectivity, particularly in government and financial systems, threat should sensed and perceive a strategic vulnerability in this interconnectivity. The implication of CW is that in skilled hands, with the backing of an enemy’s national assets, a targeted nation can be brought to its knees by an attacker, or perhaps, simply the threat of attack [11] .

CW is effective as part of a conventional campaign. CW is effective at shaping the information battle space as conventional forces conduct operations. The Russia-Georgia War demonstrated that CW can disrupt communication, misinform, and gather intelligence. This is the most likely role for CW in the near future. A modern military organization will likely employ some form of cyber attack as part of a CW campaign in support of conventional operations [12] .

CW capability cannot be employed against a target without significant CW vulnerability. The Russia-Georgia case study demonstrated that Georgia’s vulnerability to CW was much less than Estonia, because the Internet and information infrastructure were not sufficiently integrated into Georgian government and society. CW cannot disrupt a network that is not connected to anything. Strategic connectivity must exist for CW to be employed strategically. A lack of strategic connectivity results in a lack of strategic vulnerability to CW [13] .

The Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) clearly demonstrated how cyber Operations can be used to play a leading role for military operations and other forms of power. For example, during OIF the United States attacked the cellular and computer networks used by insurgents to plan and plant roadside bombings. The cyber warriors executing this attack commandeered the insurgents’ communications systems and planted false instructions which ultimately led insurgents into the fire of waiting US soldiers [14] .

OFFENSIVE CYBER OPERATIONS

Critical computing resources are captured, industrial and military secrets are stolen, strategic plans and diplomatic negotiations are compromised and key government, private, military and infrastructure systems are infiltrated, all to gain a competitive advantage for the states initiating these attacks [15] . Therefore it is clear that this open, borderless, virtualized environment need the employment of cyberspace capabilities where the primary purpose will be to take the initiative from the adversary in or through cyberspace.

Offensive operations in cyber operation have a purpose to capture information resources in order to gain a strategic, operational or tactical competitive advantage. It is modern day espionage at its finest, but it is the use of this information in follow-on operations that makes it a valid and dangerous form of cyber capabilities. In this new war fighting domain, information is analogous to terrain and the capture of key information resources can lead to decisive results across the political, economic, financial or military spectrums [16] .

As example China have recognized the competitive advantage he can gain by harvesting the intellectual property and state secrets of competitor nations. China has been conducting large scale cyber operations to capture information resources. He has made industrial espionage an integral part of its economic policy, stealing company secrets to help it leapfrog over U.S. and other foreign competitors to further its goal of becoming the world’s largest economy [17] .

The techniques employed to attack and defend information resources in cyber space are undertaken to give one actor a competitive advantage over another. Therefore, the importance of conducting Offensive cyber operations is to take action to generate and exploit some form of advantage over the adversary. Offensive Cyber Operation can be described as the application of force to capture, disrupt, deny, degrade, destroy or manipulate computing and information resources in order to achieve a position of advantage in respect to the adversaries.

In the traditional war fighting, the employment of forces involves the movement of military forces and application of fires through movement in combination with fires to achieve a position of advantage in respect to the enemy, however, in cyberspace, there is obviously no movement of forces since it is a virtualized environment. Instead, Offensive Cyber Operation involves the application of force to specific points which are code written to accomplish the attacker’s or defender’s objectives and are implemented at the time and virtual location of their choosing [18] . Therefore, Offensive Cyber operations are conducted in the cyberspace domain with the purpose to disrupt, deny, degrade, destroy or manipulate adversaries ‘computing and information resources. It is used to apply force, deny operation of or gain access to key information stores or strategically valuable systems.

The Internet will continue to provide unimpeded transfer of ideas and their proliferation. These ideas may contradict the policies of a country, further hindering the ability of the state to govern. The use of the Internet can also operate outside the control of the country further complicating governance. As various nation-states throughout the world have begun building cyber warfare programs and have actively begun conducting operations in cyberspace, it is important to understand what constitutes the principle of maneuver in cyberspace as it relates to the traditional concept of maneuver in warfare [19] . Therefore Cyber operations will require a force that lives on the network having a global cyber common operational picture, a predictive cyber threat/response capability and integrated Network Operations, defense, exploit, attack operations. In addition Offensive cyber Operations has almost unlimited operational reach since distance is virtually meaningless.

Operation reach example is the Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks have been a basic hacker weapon personal computers tainted with viruses and coordinated to make simultaneous requests at targeted websites. A recent case (September 2012) is the US financial institutions which were being pounded with high-powered cyber attacks suspected to be orchestrated by Iran as payback for political sanctions. The attackers infected datacenters used to host services in the Internet "cloud" and commandeered massive computing power to back distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks [20] .

DEFENSIVE CYBER OPERATIONS

Cyber Operations is a form of war which takes places on computers and the Internet, through electronic means rather than physical ones. Cyber Operations are growing force in the international community, and many nations regularly run them so that they are prepared for genuine attacks from their enemies. With an increasingly global reliance on technology for everything from communications to ordering supplies for troops, cyberspace become a battlefield which many nations are vulnerable to [21] . Therefore the technological changes will play a major role in the outcome and the ability of nations to defend themselves effectively, in large measure, it will depend on access to technology at least equal to that of the adversary

Defensive Operations in Cyberspace seek to anticipate and avoid threats, detect and defeat threats, survive and recover from attacks. Cyber defense seeks to operate inside the Observe Orient Decide and Act (OODA) loop of the threat. Defensive Operations in cyberspace are generally Perimeter defenses, intrusion detection, and defense-in-depth and are almost identical in concept whether executed in a kinetic defense or in the virtual world of cyberspace. Deceptive Defense is somewhat akin to an ambush, luring in an attacker although for somewhat different purposes [22] . Therefore since cyberspace is a man-made technological domain, the "laws" of cyberspace can be re-written, and therefore the domain can be modified at any level to favor defensive forces. We need to modify, extend, or replace vulnerable and insufficient protocols, architectures, instruction sets, as necessary to secure critical warfighting systems.

Cyber defense is often seen as being much more difficult than offensive operations due to what is perceived as an asymmetric advantage on the side of the attacker. While that is largely true, the proper use of defensive operations can offset that advantage and allow defenders to regain the initiative [23] . Therefore, encryption can be used to transform information using an algorithm or cipher to make it unreadable to anyone who doesn’t have the key. Skilled and persistent adversaries can break most current encryption methods but this will take time. Thus,

encryption technologies are most effective when used to augment other techniques because encryption complicates an intruder’s task.

The line defense is used by many organizations who spend resources protecting the perimeter of their network with firewalls, intrusion detection systems and other defensive measures but leave the interior of their networks relatively undefended. Defense in depth is mitigation strategy that attempts to mitigate the vulnerabilities of the line defense by hardening the interior of the network and individual systems as well. While defense in depth is a more effective strategy than a line defense, both these defensive formations suffer from the fact that they are fixed targets with relatively static defenses which an enemy can spend time and resources probing for vulnerabilities with little or no threat of retaliation [24] . Therefore honeypots which are an existing and relatively simple example of a deceptive technique can be used. They are resources that has no authorized activity, they do not have any production value. This means any interaction with a honeypot is most likely unauthorized or malicious activity. Any connection attempts to a honeypot will be most considered as a probe, attack, or compromise. The idea is to confuse an attacker, to make him waste his time and resources interacting with honeypots.

Defensive operations can use processes to lure an attacker in to committing actions which will reveal their methodology or assist the defender in attribution. An excellent example of this is the use of honey pots, purposely vulnerable systems designed to appeal to an attacker as an attractive target. The use of these types of systems can allow a defender to regain the initiative by stalling an attack, giving the defender time to gather information on the attack methodology and then adjusting other defensive systems to account for the attacker’s tactics, techniques and procedures [25] . Therefore intelligent software designed to tolerate intrusions, learn from attack methods and then neutralize attacks can be used. The objective will be to deceive the intruder into terminating the attack without revealing your intentions by either creating believable friction to reduce the intruder’s will, changing the proximity of the attack to a honeypot or if other options fail by eliminating the intruder’s capabilities by closing ports or killing processes.

The cyberspace provides adversaries a new environment to conduct offensive and defensive operations. Cyber operations offer the means to expedite other operational functions previously conducted through other domains. Examples include the virtual shutdown of the Estonian government via its Internet infrastructure and the Russian/Georgian conflict of 2008, during which Russian military forces orchestrated a wave of cyber-related operations against Georgia prior to an invasion [26] . Therefore, Cyber operation capabilities enabled forces to achieve superior position through deception and surprise and achieved a significant role in strategy. However, those capabilities will be very effective if they are made operational by integrating them into tactical/operational-level planning and force employment.

Coordinated through a Russian online forum, the online assault appeared to have been prepared with target lists and details about vulnerabilities. The cyber attacks were carried out before the two countries engaged in a five-day ground, sea, and air war [27] . Therefore, Cyber operations were conducted to attain and maintain a desired degree of superiority within any of the physical domains by destroying, degrading, denying, deceiving, disrupting, or exploiting the enemy’s capability within that same domain.

THE IMPORTANCE OF CYBER OPERATIONS IN RDF

Cyber warfare involves units organized along nation-state boundaries, in offensive and defensive operations, using computers to attack other computers or networks through electronic means [28] . Therefore the rationale for employment of Cyber capabilities within the RDF will be to ensure that it can acquire the necessary capabilities to enable operations in other domains, deny the enemy freedom of action in this domain as well as protect the cyber space assets critical to national strategic interests.

The many benefits offered by new technologies are being effectively exploited by insurgents and terrorist to manipulate and influence the population and conduct their command and control functions often unhindered. Dominance of cyber space implies control of the vital economic and diplomatic assets as well as possession of an efficient command and control by the insurgents. This has led to the cyberspace to be a domain where information systems, infrastructure and processes vital to today’s economic well-being being designated as the fifth War fighting domain on top of the existing Land, Marine, Air and Space domains. Therefore it become imperative for the RDF to acquire the needed capabilities to dominate the cyber space segment vital to national strategic interests and its operational requirements.

There are three major sectors targeted by most nations involved in cyber warfare which are financial, infrastructure, and governmental sectors. Financial attacks could disrupt the world’s major markets by taking down electronically-controlled commodity exchanges, or by shutting down web-based operations of major banks or retailers [29] .

Furthermore, Information and Communications Technology is a force multiplier for any armed forces. Information and Communications Technology has fundamentally changed the way the world operates in the modern age. Vital economic, diplomatic and military operations are dependent on the use of information and communications technology in order to achieve their strategic, operational and tactical objectives. Therefore foresight in diplomatic affairs can be a crucial advantage same as the ability to know what the adversary will propose and what his goals are is a strategic advantage that cannot be ignored

Cyber Operations combine cyber intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) and exploiting the information that exists in adversarial cyberspace is important for several reasons. Sun Tzu emphasized that knowledge is critical to creating or exploiting advantage and hence, knowledge is the prerequisite of victory [30] . Additionally cyber attack and exploitation proved to be valuable at all levels of war. Therefore, considering that the Art of War is founded on the belief that commanders must "know" victory through knowledge, Cyberspace will provide a new means for obtaining information and knowledge of adversarial cyberspace architectures is a prerequisite for initiating exploitation and/or attack options.

Furthermore, cyberspace is man-made and dynamic. Hostile cyber activities require a thorough knowledge of an adversary’s changing cyberspace architecture. Consequently, knowledge of cyberspace itself has become a new and critical collection requirement in its own right. Exploitation may prove to be the primary form of hostile cyber activity between current and rising great nations while armed combat is limited to the periphery to lower risk and costs [31] . Therefore, information itself has not been weaponized and can’t provide superior force but it exists as a key enabler for achieving superior position through deception and surprise.

To meet the challenges caused by the cyberspace threats, the RDF will achieve three imperatives cyberspace operations. First, while technology is important in cyberspace, it is not the technology that will win cyberspace battlefields but is the people that will make the difference. Therefore, the RDF must recruit, develop, and retain skilled, professional Soldiers that are capable of meeting the future challenges of cyberspace operations. The development of cyberspace unit to gain physical and psychological advantages over an enemy will enable freedom of movement in, from, and through cyberspace. The cyberspace unit will conduct a full range of cyberspace operations to seize, retain, and exploit the initiative in and through cyberspace, enabling commanders to achieve desired effects in all of the war fighting functions and across all domains.

People use technological means to launch a variety of attacks and some of these attacks take a very conventional form. Computers can be used, for example, for FDLR propaganda, espionage from hostile country, and vandalism. Denial of service attacks can be used to shut down websites, silencing the enemy and potentially disrupting their government and industry by creating a distraction. Therefore it is essential that the RDF promotes an agile and responsive cyber Operations in order to attain and maintain cyberspace superiority.

Using advanced skills, people can potentially get backdoor access to computer systems which hold sensitive data or are used for very sensitive tasks. A skilled cyber warrior could, for example, interrupt a nation's electrical grid, scramble data about military movements, or attack government computer systems. Stealthier tactics might involve creating systems which can be used to continually gather and transmit classified information directly into the hands of the enemy or using viruses to interrupt government computer systems [32] . Therefore the Defensive Cyber Operations created in response to the Offensive Cyber Operations threat are capable of neutralizing a cyber offense completely, and that this process is continuous. The RDF should position itself by implementing research, development, and acquisition processes that keep up with the speed of change and stay ahead of potential threats.

CHALLENGES

One of the challenges of cyber Operations lie in understanding the architecture of the adversary’s cyberspace systems to ensure they can be infiltrated and/or attacked when needed. This is challenging because a wide variety of deliberate and incidental activities can dramatically alter the cyber landscape over time. Systems are routinely modified, upgraded or abandoned and information is deleted, archived or moved.

Cyber Capabilities will take the form of information rather than physical effects. Information itself has not been weaponized and can’t provide superior force but it exists as a key enabler for achieving superior position through deception and surprise. Cyber capabilities can assuredly support the application of other force capabilities, but fundamentally, they are not the destructive, kinetic, purveyors of violence that war fighters traditionally envision in planning military strategies, engagements, and war [33] .

The global and asymmetrical nature of the cyber threat impedes efforts at defining boundaries of cyberspace. It is therefore clear from the nature of the challenges that a comprehensive international effort needs to be developed. This is undoubtedly the greatest challenge, do to the need to share intelligence, and develop cross agency cooperation [34] .

RDF will be required to acquire a cyberspace platform which will include a cyberspace enterprise that provokes the shift from services provided by Network Operations to the network as a war fighting platform, with a cyberspace infrastructure that enables maneuver through the hostile, competitive environment of cyberspace.

Threats in cyberspace are real, growing, sophisticated and evolving. RDF must work to train, organize, and equip to take full advantage of cyberspace’s potential. It is necessary to recognize also that adversaries want to undermine the RDF’s ability to operate freely within the information environment. Therefore RDF personnel must recognize they are in a contested environment every time they enter a network. Adversaries, to include Nation-states, will continue their daily attempts to penetrate RDF networks.

LESSONS LEARNT

The threat posed by cyber attacks and the vulnerabilities of cyberspace have become a significant concern of security and must be addressed by all societies that employ information systems. The danger of cyber attacks lies in the attacker's ability to cause, from a distance and with minimum resources, considerable damage. This can be achieved through the short-term disruption of everyday activities, through significant economic damage or even through a catastrophe involving human casualties. The use of cyberspace by terrorist organizations, organized criminals and state-sponsored actors already poses a serious global security threat.

Information security is increasingly becoming of critical importance given the need to secure critical information currently available online. This is a result of advanced and repeated cyber-attacks to government and private companies that are now spending more on security technology, assessments, training, and certification. Rwanda is investing, and must continue to do so, in IT and information security to ensure that Rwandan’s information is not compromised.

RDF cyber operations should provide support to the Army in preventing conflict, shaping the environment, and winning wars. The information environment has changed the way we fight. Military operations and cyberspace operations have converged and protecting information in and through cyberspace is more essential now than ever to how the Army fights.

A combined arms cyberspace force of elements that conduct the full range of cyberspace operational functions (build, operate, defend, exploit, and attack) to support friendly effects and counter adversarial advances are needed. Therefore the advantage will go to those able to maintain the freedom to operate and able to gain, protect, and exploit information in the contested cyberspace domain and this will require the RDF to be dominant in two domains, Land and Cyberspace.

The speed at which actions can take place in cyberspace makes it incredibly difficult for one actor to react and adjust to a successful attack or to the modification of a defensive formation. By the time a successful attack is detected and mitigation undertaken, it is likely that either data has already been compromised or worse, hostile actions have already been completed to the detriment of the defending unit [35] . Therefore Speed is a double edged sword in cyberspace. Actions happen at machine speeds, but reactions tend to happen at human speeds since reactions usually require some form of analysis and the involvement of a decision maker.

The technology upon which cyberspace is based is constantly evolving. Recent years have seen rise to heavy use of web based applications, cloud computing, smart phones, and converging technologies. This ongoing evolution leads to constant changes in tactics, techniques and procedures used by both attackers and defenders in cyberspace. Methods that work today may not work tomorrow due to new and unforeseen technological advances.

Improved vigilance on the part of RDF staff against ever more sophisticated and numerous cyber attacks and probes is recommended. Given the significant economic and other interests at stake, we recommend a more systematic and sustained effort to raise awareness from the low level ranks regarding security loopholes and vulnerabilities. These efforts, led by commanders at all levels will be important in changing the way RDF staffs currently views network security.

It is an essential precondition for the securing of cyberspace that every operator of a computer, computer network or information system realizes the personal responsibility of using the data and instruments of communication at his or her disposal in a purposeful and appropriate manner.

The dependence of the daily functioning of society on IT solutions makes the development of adequate security measures an urgent need. Every information system owner must acknowledge the risks related to the disturbance of the service he or she provides. Up-to-date and economically expedient security measures must therefore be developed and implemented. Greater urgency be given to Secure Cyberspace calling and for an effective public/private partnership to use software security and related.

To attain cyberspace superiority, RDF must execute successful offensive, defensive, and maintenance operations through network attack, network defense, and network operations, respectively, in order to attain the level of control required to operate unimpeded while preventing the enemy from gaining advantage from the use of cyberspace.

The RDF should continue to review, focus, and adapt efforts to evolving cyberspace threats, vulnerabilities, and capabilities. The RDF must elaborate strategy to continue to provide trained and ready cyberspace forces capable of supporting commander requirements.