Archaeological Site Of Pazyryk Burials

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02 Nov 2017

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Cottbus 2013

Content

1. Brief description of the site………………………………………………………...………..3

2. UNESCO-status of the archaeological site………………………………………………..6

3. Historical background of Pazyryk culture……………………...…………………………..8

4. Characteristics of Pazyryk`s burial chambers and special mummification techniques …………………………………………………………………………………………………...10

5. Archeological research…………………..………………………………………...…..…..12

6. Archaeological process…………………..………………………………………...…..….12

7. Archeological findings, discovered during the excavation of two graves on the plateau Ukok…………………..………………………………………………………………...…..…..14

8. Methods of archeological research………………………………………..……..……….18

9. Significance of archeological heritage for national/cultural identity………..……...…..21

10. Banning further archeological digs………………………………………..…….....……26

11. Mass Media coverage of archaeological research and its consequences………….26

12. Archaeological problems………………………………………..……................………27

13. Current problems in conservation of frozen tombs ……………..……................……28

14. Connection of the site with politics……………………………..……...............……….303

Brief description of the site

The archaeological site of of Pazyryk Burials is situated in Altai Mountains in the Russian Federation. The mountains are laid 450 km to the southwest of Novosibirsk (Siberia), in the Altai Republic. They have a shared border with Mongolia, Kazakhstan and China (Figure 1).

The Altai Mountains consist of three separate zones:

• Altaiskiy Nature Reserve (872 000 ha) and its buffer zone around the Lake Teletskoe (93 753 ha);

• Katunskiy Nature Reserve (156 664 ha) and it’s buffer zone around Mt. Belukha (262 800 ha);

• Quiet Zone Ukok (252 904 ha).

The area where the frozen tombs were found is located on Ukok plateau (third zone of the Altai Mountains).

The Altai Mountains are extremely rich in archaeological sites, among the oldest of which are the sites of Karama and Ulalinka that bear witness to a human presence on this territory 800,000 years ago. Remains dating back to the Palaeolithic, Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages and the Early and High Middle Ages have been discovered and surveyed in the Altai among the most important of them being the Scythian frozen burial complexes of the so-called Pazyryk Culture (UNESCO. World Heritage Centre,2008, p. 25).

Figure 1. Altai Mountains on the map of Russia. Close to the boarder of Kazakhstan, Mongolia and China. 4

Surrounded by the rocky mountains, difficult accessed by modern means of transport, with a harsh climate, the Ukok plateau is nevertheless always been attractive to a human. Ukok plateau has long attracted human attention because of its wonderful winter pastures, from which snow carpet was blown by strong winds. Besides, many tombs were situated near the rivers, which could make this location even more fascinating for ancient tribes.

The site the present research is dedicated to consist of several "kurgans" which mean translated from Russian "tombs" (Figure 2). The scientists state that all of the kurgans are united, as the findings represent the remains of Scythian culture.

Figure 2. Two kurgans - Upper Kaldzhin 2 mound 3 (upper one) and Ak-Alakha-3 mound 1 (lower one) –

belong to the latest archaeological findings in Ukok Plateau.

The specific of this archaeological site is that the excavations had to be done under the conditions of permafrost.5

Two and a half thousand years ago Altai was inhabited by Pazyryk culture carriers, known to archaeologists around the world. Thanks to special natural conditions the burial chambers were filled with ice lenses, which preserved mummies and unique items.That became a bonus for the archaeologists, as various organic materials and above all the mummies found there remained in a good condition in spite of their age reaching up to 3000 years.

In some cases, the ice lenses have also preserved mummified human bodies with intact tattoos and hair-dresses. All these findings have led to a comprehensive understanding of the burial practices in the Pazyryk culture, as well as of the clothes, weapons and horse trappings, allowing for study at an almost ethnographic level (UNESCO. World Heritage Centre,2008, p. 25).

The frozen burial complexes of the Altai Mountains were first discovered in the kurgans Berel and Katanda by the Russian academician V.V. Radloff in 1865. Further studies were undertaken by M. P. Gryaznov (kurgan 1 of the Pazyryk necropolis) and S. I. Rudenko (kurgans 2-5 of the Pazyryk necropolis, Bashadar), as well as by V. D. Kubarev (Yustyd, Ulandryk, the Sailugem burial complexes), N.V. Polosmak and V. I. Molodin (Ukok Plateau), Z. Samashev and H.-P. Francfort (Berel necropolis), V. I. Molodin, H. Parzinger, D. Tseveendorj (the Olon-Kurin-Gol 6 and 10 necropolis) (UNESCO. World Heritage Centre,2008, p. 25).

The first archaeological research on the plateau Ukok was conducted by V.Kubarev in the early 1970s (Derevianko & Molodin, 2000, p.9 ). In 1990, the first excavation works on the plateau have been made. Northeast Asian expedition of IAEt RAS(Novosibirsk) under guidance of Dr. N.Polosmak performed a study of the first open burial grounds Ak - Alakha -1.

The search for the frozen tombs was undertaken not only in Altai Region. Similar works were done in 1953 in Tuva (Russian Federation) by A.D. Grach. These excavations brought some results, but neither mummified bodies, nor their clothes were found (Derevianko & Molodin, 2000, p. 31).

The dedicated research is therefore devoted to the last findings from the Ukok Plateau, including two particular kurgans (tombs): Ak - Alakha -3 (a female mummy), and Upper Kaldzhin 2 (a warrior mummy). 6

UNESCO-status of the archaeological site

The Altai frozen tombs are not included or nominated as a separate WHS. However, it is territorially situated in a listed World Heritage Site – the "Golden Mountains of Altai", which was nominated as a natural heritage site in 1998 under criteria X.

Both mummies (of the female mummy and a warrior) are a part of the Russian national heritage.

The female mummy is the object of cultural heritage on the federal level according to the federal legislation. This special status causes both advantages, but also political intrigues and problems in its preservation.

It is important to point out that they were some intentions to nominate the frozen tombs as a World Heritage Site. During the UNESCO international workshop in March 2006 that was hosted by Gorno-Altaisk University (Altai Republic, Russian Federation), there were some prescriptions made towards the conservation of Altai frozen tombs.

Participants of the workshop were 50 prominent archaeologists and geologists, from Belgium, China, France, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Russian Federation, the United States, and the representatives from UNESCO and UNESCO World Heritage Centre.

The following abstract suggests UNESCO recommendation proposed during the workshop:

Recommend <…>

that the authorities of the Russian Federation and of the Altai Republic,

make efforts to submit the request for the inclusion of the Ukok Plateau on the World Heritage List by extending the nomination of "Golden Mountains of Altai" into a mixed (natural and cultural) site;

<…>

that the concerned authorities, academics, scholars, institutes and universities;

urgently take all the necessary measures to safeguard and preserve the frozen tombs in the Altai Mountains, endangered by thawing due to global warming. To this end, the following technical recommendations were made: 7

• the establishment of an accurate map and a thorough inventory of all archaeological monuments, as a first step, accompanied by detailed information related to their location, and description, since the frozen tombs should be considered as part of the unique cultural landscape of the Altai Mountains. This will be the basis of long-term efforts for preservation of the frozen tombs endangered by thawing. It is of utmost importance that surveys focus upon all archaeological remains present in the area. During the selection of areas and monuments to be protected, all elements of the cultural and archaeological landscape should be taken into account;

• the identification of a compatible methodology for mapping the Altai Mountains. Integration of maps is most important, and should take into account the norms and particular circumstances of each country. A discussion between archaeologists and other specialists should be organised, as there is a crucial need to determine the most appropriate scale of these maps;

• the organisation of activities and the initiation of projects in order to develop models to understand better environmental conditions in the Altai Mountains in the field of geology, geo-cryology and climatology in the past (paleo-environment) and into the future;

• the monitoring of the frozen burial sites. Given their deteriorating condition, all appropriate technologies should be used. Therefore the participants urge for the organization of a discussion between archaeologists and other specialists to determine the best methods to be used.

that UNESCO World Heritage Centre

support the initiative for launching a global strategy for the preservation of cultural heritage in the Altai Mountains, including the frozen tombs, which constitutes a unique cultural landscape in the Eurasian continent

(UNESCO. World Heritage Centre,2008, p. 74-75).8

However, the existing World Heritage Site "Golden Mountains of Altai" have not been exceeded or brought as a new nomination into the Tentative List of Russia yet.

Historical background of Pazyryk culture

The name Pazyryk derives from same-called mountain area in Ulagansky District (Altai Republic, Russia), the place the academician Sergey Rudenko has found in 1929 the burial chambers of tribal elite.

The ancient Altai cultures began during the glacial and post-glacial age, as has been demonstrated by discoveries of archaeological remains and examples of rock art in the region. However, the focus here is on the period of the Iron Age, called the Age of the Ancient Nomads. This latter period, dating from c. 1,000 to 200 BCE, is named the "Pazyryk Culture" after its most brilliant phase that extended from c. 450 to 250 BCE according to the latest research, and it is this short but extremely important period that will be discussed (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Time line of the frozen tombs. The ancestors of Pazyryks culture.

Source: UNESCO. World Heritage Centre,2008, p. 17.

The Pazyryk Culture was characterized by the replacement of the old hunting mode of subsistence by mounted pastoral nomadism. Pastoralists inhabited the wide meadows and valleys of the Altai during late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and they have lived in the Altai ever since. Pastoral nomadism is a way of life that permits large demographic expansion in a landscape where agriculture is not possible and where predation –hunting and gathering – is not very productive (UNESCO. World Heritage Centre, 2008, p. 35).9

Essential attributes of the Pazyryk life were a horse, weapons, and faith in the help of ancestors and heavenly patrons (Figure 4). Pazyryk society was headed by the so-called leaders who, after their death were buried in the giant mounds erected in the most picturesque mountain areas and river valleys. A lot of treasure and jewels were hidden in their mounds. Unfortunately, most of the mounds were ravaged in antiquity by greedy contemporaries.

The basis of the Pazyryk military forces was built by horsemen, armed with bows and arrows.

Figure 4. An image of a typical Pazyryk warrior.

Source: http ://history.novosibdom.ru/node/40

Altai bows consisted of four layers of wood. For better grip splices were covered with oblique incisions. Then, the finished product was wrapped with strings and pasted with birch bark. Judging by the fragments found, Pazyryks bows reached in length up to 110 centimeters (Figures 5 and 6).

Figure 5. Arrowheads were made of bone or bronze. In section they were usually triangular, rarely tetrahedral. Small size of bronze sweeps (2.5-4 cm length, bushing diameter - 5 mm) indicates a small amount of the shafts of arrows and a bow itself, which, however, had enough power to flatten the bronze tip when hit the target. a - V-IV century. BCE. Ukok Plateau. Burial Upper Kaldzhin-2. Altai Mountains. Excavations by V. Molodin; b, c - Denisova Cave. Altai Mountains. Excavations by V. Molodin.

Figure 6. Shafts of arrows were painted black or red. This painting was a sign of ownership, designated its owner to a particular race. These paintings tagged shafts of the arrows of soldiers buried in the Pazyryk and Tuektinskih mounds. V-III centuries. BCE. Altai Mountains. Scanning images by S. Rudenko10

Pazyryks were buried by ritual inhumation, together with one or several horses. Ordinary people were not interred, or at least were not interred in large burial sites. Members of the elite, on the other hand, were buried in large mounds, or kurgans, along with their belongings, horses and sometimes attendants.

Anthropologists till recently had three main suppositions to what race the Pazyryks could belong. They were the following:

Figure 7. Hypothetical image of the female mummy.

Source: http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/

1. Pazyryks could belong to the European type with a long and large face;

2. They could be of the Mongoloid type with a rather short face and almond-shaped eyes; or

3. They could have the Mongoloid type of face, rather short than long.

Thanks to the latest research of the female mummy found in Ak-Alakha-3 mound 1 and its DNA analysis, the scientists become a chance to get a reconstruction image of the mummy that could have the appearance of a European woman (Figure 7). That proved the correctness of the first supposition.

Characteristics of Pazyryk`s burial chambers and special mummification techniques

One of the essential procedures of the burial rituals for Pazyryks was embalming of dead bodies. Necessary in most of the cases was also skull trepanation.

Dimensions of burial chambers and especially height log cabins - up to 1.5 m or more (Tuekta I, for example, 1,75-1,85 m) completely state that they were intended not only to put the deck with the deceased, but also to provide the possibility of being inside the 11

camera for people (e.g. relatives or other persons), directly involved into the funeral rituals.

The deck with the body of the deceased was usually placed close to the southern wall of the framework so that a large, north of the chamber remained virtually free. Different belongings could be placed here, as well as people who committed ritual activities could stay in the tomb for some time (Figure 8).

Figure 8. A reconstruction of a burial scene of the Ukok princess found in the Altai Mountains.

Both the dead woman and her attendant are dressed in traditional Pazyryk clothes.

Source: http://pinterest.com/pin/32369691043858864/

The size and height of the burial chambers in small mounds exclude the possibility of other people`s presence there, but this place has traditionally remained free. The walls of the burial chambers in large barrow were draped with carpets and felts, which probably was intended not only imitation of a "residential" area, but also the creation of a closed, consecrated images on carpets and felt, ritual area that has its own sacred purpose.

New findings of Ukok mummies helped to disclose a secret of Pazyryk embalming techniques. From ancient times there were only two types of embalming known - Egyptian and Scythian, both were found in the written sources: Egyptian method – in papyrus and second book "Histories" of Herodotus, the Scythian embalming method – in the fourth book "Histories" of Herodotus. Pazyryks didn`t leave any written testimonies of special embalming methods, but it became possible with the physico-chemical and biochemical research methods, involving pathologists, to restore the process of Pazyryk`s embalming and substances that were used in it.

For mummies stuffing was used grass, but not any particular set of rare herbs with antiseptic properties as the Scythians did, but a usual grass from pastures surrounding the grave and ordinary grass eaten by cattle that have symbolic meaning for Pazyryks.12

In particular, stuffing of the female mummy from the mound Ak Alakha had herbs, which till nowadays are growing around the mound and around the Ukok plateau.

Usually, while mummification, body cavities – opened and released – were filled with a variety of substances, in order to restore the volume of the body, not to give him shrink.

For example, in Egypt they stuffed fabric (usually a resin) sawdust, ground (with soda), sand and other materials, and lichen under the skin. All these ingredients had the hygroscopic properties, but rarely the preservative or antiseptic effect. This applies also to the Pazyryks.

However, a special analysis showed the presence of mercury on the skin of a female mummy from the mound Ak Alakha, so one can assume that the preservative fluid, introduced into the tissues of the body, had mercury compounds.

The face of the dead body was covered with a special composition of oil and wax in order to preserve the life-like portrait of a mummy. Sometimes legs were also covered with it (Savinov, 1996, p.107-111).

Archeological research

Archeological research was conducted by two working teams from Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography SB RAS (Novosibirsk, c. 870 km from the archeological site) on plateau Ukok during 6 archeological field seasons. Archeological investigations presented the world marvelous examples of material, as well as spiritual culture of different epochs and races.

The study of these findings involved about 30 research organizations from Russia and abroad (Switzerland, United Kingdom, Germany). The Soviet and Russian archeology has always used methods of the natural and exact sciences, but such a unique and complex approach to the study of archaeological artifacts was conducted for the first time in the world.

Archaeological process

The working team included art-restorers and students of Omsk Pedagogical Institute.

From 1991 till 1996 two working groups under the guidance of Doctor of Sciences N. Polosmak and Academician V. Molodin have been investigating frozen mounds of the plateau. Research teams included not only archaeologists, but also anthropologists, art 13

restorers, dendrochronologists, interns and researchers from the U.S., Germany, Japan, and students from Novosibirsk.

During investigations of burial complex Ak-Alakha-3, discovered by Polosmak, the mummy of women was founded. In 1995 during excavations of third mound of Upper Kaldzhin 2(founded by V. Molodin), West Siberian squad has founded burial mummified man preserved in permafrost.

The study of funerary complexes with permafrost may give professionals the unique data, which ordinary archeological site would not contain. However, the presence of permafrost in the burial chamber creates very considerable difficulties both during excavation and post-processing. In the study of tombs with frost in addition to problems associated with its thawing, it is extremely important to organize the immediate process of the field conservation and restoration of the excavation objects of wood, leather, fabric, felt, fur. Preserved in the "frozen" graves soft tissues of humans and animals also require a special approach.

Work in the frozen soil required special techniques. The axe, the bucket and warm water were the main instruments of work and replaced traditional shovel, knife and brush.

Figure 9. Pazyryk mound on plateau Ukok. / / Source: mustagclub.ru

The first stage of the study was photographing from different points and videography. The next phase of research was a layered deconstruction of gravestones, which was made by hands.

This approach allowed researches to identify design features of the gravestones. Cleanout of the burial chamber from the soil and boulders was carried out using conventional methods for such a procedure. While taking out filling from the grave, archeologists sometimes faced frozen soil or frozen together boulders. In such cases, the work was stopped for a while, so that the lens of the ice at the ambient temperature melted by itself. In addition, it was important to strengthen the walls of the burial chamber, as the soil of the walls of burial pits was falling on already cleared areas. 14

The burial remains of horses and the objects, found around the burial chamber were taken out first. Animal remains were placed in the plastic bags and in refrigerators. Wooden objects were put into pure alcohol bath; felt, fabric and fur were dried.

After opening of the burial chamber researchers encountered a large ice lenses. In order to melt the ice, archaeologists have performed two methods-creating tight spaces under the plastic cover, thus creating a greenhouse effect, and melting of the ice by means of warm water jet and its later dewatering. Although there was a great resistance to this method expressed by local people, it is scientifically proved that mechanical release of a biological object from the ice can lead to more negative consequences than the water. Experience shows that water in contact with the mummy has no negative impact on it. World experience of studying similar biological objects proves that moisture can be a great preservative for long term storage of soft tissues of the corpse. After the extraction the mummies, their bodies were wrapped with wet swabs and stored at below-zero temperatures. For this reason a special freezer was used on plateau Ukok.

Thanks to strict compliance of all the requirements for restoration and conservation, none of the excavation objects from Ukok were lost.

Figure 10. Ice lens in the log of Ak-Alakha burial. Source: http://iaet.vixpo.su.ru

Archeological findings, discovered during the excavation of two graves on the plateau Ukok

The burial complex Ak-Alakha-3 mound 1, which was found in summer 1993 by N. Polosmak is 18m in diameter and 57 sm high.

It was two-layered tomb, the upper one was a deception and was looted, and that has actually saved the graving underneath. The upper chamber was 5 m x 4 m, the lower burial chamber was 3, 6 m x 2, 3 m. Six horses, their fur, tails, wooden ornaments of harness, saddle parts and felt covering were found around the lower chamber. (Derevianko & Molodin, 2000, p.57 ). 15

Figure 11. The plan of the burial chamber â„– 1, Ak-Alakha-3 (excavation Polosmak NV).Source: Derevianko & Molodin, 2000, p.61.

1 - Pottery, 2 - horny vessel, 3 - wooden vessel, 4, 5 - wooden dishes, sacrum foal, 7 - lamb rump, 8 - iron knife, 9 -, copper nails, 10 - larch log.

The mummy of a woman was found inside the log. She was lying head to the east. The ice has preserved her mummified body, clothing and jewelry.

The woman was wearing silk shirt, which is a testimony to her well-being, as far as silk in the Altai was valued more than gold. She was also wearing long wool skirt and long felt stockings. The mummy was covered with fur bedspread, decorated with applications of golden foil.

The woman was bold, but had a 61-sm height wig on her head, decorated with jewelries and ornaments. A small piece of the mirror in a felt bag was founded next to her. Some golden and wooden jewelries were also founded in the tomb.

It was determined that the woman died about 3 months prior the burial. The fact that she was buried alone is an evidence of her celibacy, and perhaps a sign of shamanism. Probably young woman possessed some special knowledge - she could be a folktale narrator, a healer or weather-maker, but it is clear that she was not a member of noble wealthy family. (Derevianko & Molodin, 2000, p.85 ).

The burial complex of third mound of Upper Kaldzhin 2 was discovered in 1995 by V.Molodin; the mound was rectangular, 12 m x 10, 8 m size. Burial chamber was covered by several layers of boulders. Tomb size was 2.2 m x 2.6 m, which was never looted. The remains of one horse and elements of the harness were found next to the tomb (bones in a very bad condition).16

Archeologists have found the following artifacts inside the tomb: wooden vessel, wooden plate with the remains of food and knife.

The body of a man in the clothes was found on a wooden platform (funeral couch). The man was put on his right side, in a strongly flexed position, head to the north-east. (Derevianko & Molodin, 2000, p.100 ). The deceased was dressed in baggy coarse woolen trousers, high felt boots- stockings and fur coat, made of sheep with the fur inside. Clothing of buried man was complemented by high hat, made out of thin greenish-gray colored felt. The total of three head-dresses were discovered in the grave (Derevianko & Molodin, 2000, p.104).

The tomb also contained dishes, arming equipment and household things. All findings in this burial, such as objects of gun set, clothes and other items correspond to male burials of ordinary members of Pazyryk community.

This mummy of a man is the only representative of the ordinary Pazyryk society. The mummy of a woman found by Polosmak, according to researchers, regarded at least to the middle class of society, or any other category. Therefore, it could be concluded that the mummification process was typical for all members of Pazyryk society, and not only for elite part of it. Although it differed in its complexity. (Derevianko & Molodin, 2000, p. 114).

The worst preserved parts of both mummies in Ukok were their heads, actually only skulls have survived. The male mummy from the monument Upper-Kaldzhin II has well preserved hair. His hair was a bright red color, braided, but dimmed after the contact with the air.

Bodies of both mummies are covered with large number of tattoos. They are very well preserved on the body of a man, the image impresses with its elegance and originality. Tattoos were applied to the human body in connection with the ritual of initiation or as a marking with personal qualities. "Tattoos were used as a mean of personal identification - like a passport now, if you like," Dr. Polosmak told The Siberian Times. "The Pazyryks also believed the tattoos would be helpful in another life, making it easy for the people of the same family and culture to find each other after death." (quoted in Stuart, W., 2012)17

Figure 12. Plan of the burial chamber Upper Kaldzhin II, Mould. 3 (V. Molodin excavation) (on the right).Source: Derevianko & Molodin, 2000, p. 98.

1 –bit; 2 – psalium; 3 - headlight badge;

4 - pendants shaped as boar's tusks; 5 - hopple zip; 6 - girth buckle; 7 - whip handle (?);8 –stake; 9 - felt belts; 10 – vessel; 11 – dish; 12 - sheep bones; 13 – knife; 14 - funeral bed; 15 – head-dress; 16 – pants;, 17 – boots; 75 - fur coat; 19 - piece of the belt; 20 - pads on the belt; 21 - fastenings; 22 – finial of headdress; 23 – figurine of a deer; 24 - sculpture of a horse; 25 - fur; 26,27 – hats; 28 – klevets; 29 – cover for the quiver; 30 – clasp; 31 - bolts; 32 - a dagger in a sheath; 33 - the hryvnia; 34 - crest; 35 - mirror in the cover; 36-blanket; 37,38 - vessels; 39 - stand for vessels; 40 – mummy; 1, 13 – iron; 2 – 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 20-24, 29 - 33 – wood; 6, 34,38 – horn; 9, 15,26,36 - felt; 17 - felt, leather; 18, 25 – fur; 19 – leather; 27 - felt, fur; 28 - wood, iron; 35 - bronze, leather; 37 - clay.

Study of mummies showed that the approximate age of both deceased was 20-30, about 25 years old.

Both discoveries generated great interest among the scientific and general public. Findings required not only extensive research, but also a careful restoration and conservation. Initial treatment of all found items in the burial complexes was made in the field, immediately after being removed from the graves. Later, in laboratory conditions, the processes of restoration and conservation have been brought to its logical conclusion (some items, however, are still in process of restoration).

Figure 13. On the left: Female mummy found in of the burial chamber â„–1 mound Ak-Alakha-3.On the top & right: Male mummy from the burial chamber â„– 3 mound Upper Kaldzhin 2.18

Methods of archeological research

1. Electromagnetic frequency sounding of the soil

The development of non-destructive geophysical research methods of soil introduces great contributions to the protection and preservation of historical monuments. The electromagnetic induction method is especially important, the proper application of which is based on a joint geophysical and archaeological interpretation of the data, in some cases, could save the monument from destruction, and sometimes eliminates the need for its opening (Source: Virtual exhibition).

Figure 14. Electromagnetic frequency sounding of the soil.Source: http://iaet.vixpo.su.ru

2. Biomedical research of Ukok mummies

Conservation and biomedical research was rather complicated. World experience of similar storage facilities has shown that the best way to conserve is creating an appropriate temperature and humidity conditions. For example, the corpse of the famous Ötzi (the Iceman) is kept in the special flask in Austria. However, this method makes it difficult to study the object and its demonstration.

Autopsy study of the mummies was first conducted in Novosibirsk SB RAS, then in Moscow, and also with the cooperation with pathologists from the Irhelsk- Zurich University. It should be noted that prof. B. Kozeltsev and V. Semkin of Moscow Research and Experiment Center of Biomedical Technologies VILAR have performed difficult work brilliantly, and now mummy can be stored and displayed in fairly easy-created conditions.

It was discovered that both mummies had no signs of life-time deviations, or substances, indicating hemorrhage, or changes caused by diseases and treatments. A full X-ray of the female mummy has been made in the Institute of Hydrodynamics SB RAS. The results proved that the joints and spine have no sharp abnormalities. 19

Removal of viscera of the dead person body is the first step towards its conservation. The second, apparently, was covering the surface of the body with mercury compounds and beeswax. The remains of quicksilver have been found during the biomedical research, which was used for mummification. Pazyryks used mummification techniques because the time of burial was usually much later that death time.

Chemical and biochemical studies of tissue mummies gave an opportunity to find the most effective ways for restoration and conservation of mummified bodies (Source: Virtual exhibition).

3. Dendrochronology: the study of ancient wooden structures

The uniqueness of Pazyryk monuments is connected with well preserved in the permafrost wooden structures. The objects made of larch, pine, spruce and cedar were found in the burials.

Many problems have been associated with the restoration and conservation of the wood: if small objects were processed in the institute, the impregnation of large items (cabins, decks) required special equipment. Special device within the contract program "Pazyryk" was provided by Japanese colleagues from Nara - "one of the largest centers for the restoration and conservation of archaeological objects" (Derevianko & Molodin, 2000, p.9). Equipment has been installed and tested at the Institute of Nuclear Physics (Source: Virtual exhibition).

4. Anthropological studies allowed to determine the age of the buried, reconstruct their appearance and to make conclusions about rasogeneze of Pazyryk carriers.

Figure 15. Visual reconstruction by D. Pozdnjakov of the female and male bodies (Source: Virtual exhibition).20

5. Paleobotanical studies

Paleobotanical studies formed the basis for the understanding of the role of plants in the home and ritual practice of Pazyryks, helped to answer the question about the age of the log and time of burial, provided an idea of the flora of the plateau Ukok 2.5 thousand years ago.

6. Chemical analysis of ancient textile dyes

The study of colored things like felt and fabrics found in the graves of Ukok was conducted in the Institute of Organic Chemistry Vorozhtsov and Institute of Catalysis SB RAS. Methods of chemical analysis were used to determine how the fabric from burials was colored, and then at the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences were able to draw conclusions about the origin of these dyes.

Part of products from fabric (skirt and jacket from the burial AK-Alakha-3) was restored in Switzerland under the leadership of one of the world's textile specialists - restorers Dr. M. Flury-Lemberg, author of the monograph on the restoration of textile. Chemical analysis of ancient textile dyes showed that silk was brought from China and the dyes come from Iran.

Figure 16. Wool skirt. Mound 1 burial Alakha Ak-3. Source: http://iaet.vixpo.su.ru

7. The study of tattoos

Chemical and physical studies of tattoos gave the opportunity to explore a way of tattooing and the paint.

8. The study of women's wig

Figure 17. Drawing of a wig and tattoos by E. Shumakova. Source: http://iaet.vixpo.su.ru

Headdress-wig from the burial of a young woman in Alakha Ak-3 was discovered for the first time in the study of Pazyryk monuments. It was necessary to determine the 21

composition of the base material, and get recommendations for its storage. The composition was analyzed by means of modern physical and chemical methods. As a result, specialists managed to restore and conserve the wig.

9. Physical-chemical methods

Physical-chemical methods of research are focused on the composition and structure of metals, which form the mainstay of some findings in the graves. Working with a small but vibrant collection of Pazyryk metal objects gives the ability to make only preliminary conclusions. But it is already clear that ancient population of Altai Scythian epoch obtained many techniques of metallurgy.

Significance of archeological heritage for national/cultural identity

The Ukok Plateau is significant for its unique nature, fairy-tale landscapes, and great spiritual meaning for local indigenous people. Altai people ancestors, who lived on plateau thousands years ago, were engaged in pastoralism, hunting, fishing and gathering. Descendants of the modern Altai people were Turks, Scythians, Mongols, Uigurs, Kidans, and others. In the eighteenth century the land was passed into the possession of Russia and since then Russians and Kazakhs were added to local population. At all times, the land of Altai was a sacred place for its inhabitants, many rituals and ceremonies were associated with mountains, rivers, praising the spirits of nature. Until now, there are many traditional seasonal holidays, when the Aborigines ask the Land for food, for a favorable climate for the cultivation of plants and animals. –Shamans, or people who "know", "call" and "communicate" with spirits are still active and respected in the modern Altai society.

Burial traditions of Altai people have also much in common with 2000-3000 ago: they inter people in huge wooden block-houses with food, clothes and sometimes even with horses. The traditional peoples' relationship with the surrounding landscape is so strong that it seems as if the cultural traditions shaped the landscape, but not the other way around.

For archeologists, this place remains to be a kind of a Mecca for many decades. Investigations of burial mounds and mummified remains of people at plateau have enriched scientific knowledge by providing new information about Pazyrykian culture. (Derevianko & Molodin, 2000, p.5)22

In this section we are going to focus on the significance of female mummy for cultural identity for Altai people. The excavations of the male mummy have not received such a resonance in the society.

After the excavations (1993) and before 2012 the female mummy was preserved in the Museum of Archeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Novosibirsk Akademgorodok (Science city). This fact has caused great resentment of the Altai people. From their point of view, "the princess of Ukok" (that’s how indigenous people call the female mummy) should be return to the Altai: some believed that return to the territory of the republic is enough, while others insisted that the mummy should be re-buried in the same place.

Figure 18. Telengiti. sourchttp://www.akipress.org/kghistory/news:5471

Figure 19. Shaman with a tambourine. Source: http://ru.wikipedia.org

Altai shamans, who "can" hear the voice of the dead, has proclaimed that they have heard the voice of the princess:" Her soul utters the word "Maata", - says Kypchakova Clara, the most famous Altai seer. –"In our language, it means "Save me!"

Altai people claim that they have always knew where the tomb was, but this place was sacred and they never disturbed her spirit. When archeologists discovered, opened and took out the mummy, local people responded unequivocally: now expect a trouble!

"Troubles" have begun immediately after the official "presentation" of the finding – the helicopter’s engine has stopped while transporting mummy from Barnaul to Novosibirsk and had to make an emergency landing.23

"Princess does not want to leave Altai!" - Indigenous people reacted immediately (quoted in Telnov, 2012).

Many Altai people honestly believe that the Princess of Ukok is their ancestor Kydym. From their point of view, disasters of recent years in the Republic of Altai occur just because the spirit of the princess was worried. For example, an earthquake that occurred 10 years after the excavation in 2003 and destroyed many villages in Altai Republic is also associated with Altai Princess’s anger.

These are some examples of local resentment expression:

'She was a beautiful young woman, whom they dug up, poured hot water and chemicals upon, and subjected to other experiments. They did this to a real person….We're having earth tremors two or three times a week. People think this will go on as long as the princess's spirit is not allowed to rest in peace….This is a very painful issue. Altai's native people worry about their forbear. The Princess must return to us.' complained Erkinova to the Irish Times newspaper in 2004. (quoted in "Siberian Princess reveals her 2,500 year old tattoos", 2012)

But genetic research has proved that there is no "kinship" between the Altai people and ‘princess of Ukok". DNA investigation has shown that the body of the mummy belongs to the European type, not to Mongoloid.

Archeologists have replied to the public and described the debates around the mummy as follows:

Vyacheslav Molodin: "Do not call her "princess." She is not a princess; she is representative of the middle layer of the Pazyryk society. The row around our findings arises only when Altai is being in the middle of some events: either the election or earthquake, or local budget deficits. Immediately this "lady" is raised to shield all troubles because it is in Novosibirsk, and not in the Altai. Even political parties are trying to use it, promising that in case of election they will return "princess" in the Altai. All this intrigue is of the lowest sort. At first we were worried about it, but now take it quite calmly. The mummy will be returned in the Altai after its studying.

Most interesting is that this mummy - not the first, which is excavated in the Altai and taken away. In the thirties and fifties during excavations barrow was found several 24

mummies, which are stored in the Hermitage. And thanks God, no one calls them back. And these ones were the burials of the highest layer of Pazyryk society. "

'We agreed to give back the princess once the conditions for looking after it were right. That means proper accommodation with an air conditioner and a special sarcophagus,' said Molodin as long ago as 1997. 'Another condition was that this was our intellectual property and that we would have the right to use it for exhibitions and to study it. We're not doing this out of curiosity but in the interests of science. The soul is somewhere else and we're studying the remains. So I don't see a violation of any accepted social rule here.' (quoted in "Siberian Princess reveals her 2,500 year old tattoos", 2012).

In the book "Phenomenon of the mummies of the Altai" Archeologist Natalya Polosmak (2000) states that "Taking into consideration the global warming effect, we are facing a real risk of losing these unique monuments. If some of the Altai intellectual circles do not want to understand that, it is very strange to hear conclusions about our work on the Ukok which was allegedly conducted "in search of sensation or immediate benefit" from professional archaeologists, who although do not have agreed evaluation of scientific importance of research on the of plateau.

Not for the sake of sensation, but for the sake of obtaining fundamentally new knowledge based on materials found at the archaeological sites worked many scientists of different directions."(Derevianko & Molodin, 2000, p.12)

Eventually a compromise was reached, though delays and arguments followed. On the 26th of September 2012 Mummy of Ukok women was moved to renovated National Museum of the Anokhin in Gorno-Altaisk. For the sarcophagus with a mummy rectangular room about 40 by 50 meters was built, covered with a top glass pyramid. For mummy, whose age is about 2.5 thousand years, a special niche was prepared, the temperature in which is always 18 degrees and the humidity - 40-45%. In addition to that, in order to preserve mummy as long as possible, experienced restorers will be impregnating her body with a special fluid every three months. (Smaginian, 2012)25

Figure 20. Transportation of female mummy from Novosibirsk to Gorno-Altaisk. Source: www.aif.ru/society/gallery/2046

Along with the mummy itself some other artifacts found on the Plateau Ukok were transferred to the Museum of Gorno-Altaisk: "a larch wood frame and deck, as well as a glass sarcophagus specially made for its display and storage, in which the mummy has been displayed since 2010 at the Museum of History and Culture of the Peoples of Siberia and the Far East."(quoted in "Mummy «Altai Princess» to be given to Gorny Alay in summer 2012", 2012).

As V.Molodin explained the decision about the transfer of additional equipment and artifacts was associated with a mutual interest of archeologists and cultural researchers to reconstruct the image of a Pazyryk woman and her burial.( "Mummy «Altai Princess» to be given to Gorny Alay in summer 2012", 2012)

Figure 21. Exhibits, devoted to the archeological investigations of female mummy from plateau Ukok in the National Museum of the Anokhin in Gorno-Altaisk source: http://www.liveinternet.ru/users/3286968/post244605805/

"The mummy will be kept in a closed alcove. A mannequin dressed in identical replicas of the mummy’s clothing, made by our institute’s restorers, will be placed in the museum’s hall. However, for special occasions and distinguished guests, the alcove will be opened and visitors will have the opportunity to behold the mummy itself. If the need 26

arises to examine the mummy again, we will also be able to access it, which is fully stipulated by the contract" (quoted in "Mummy «Altai Princess» to be given to Gorny Alay in summer 2012", 2012)

Figure 22. "Altai Princess" is located in the hall of the National Museum of the Republic of Altai, titled "Ukok" Photo: Vitaly Volobuev.

Banning further archeological digs

Long-drawn conflicts about the mummies have caused that plateau Ukok where the "princess" and her kinsmen were buried was declared as a 'zone of peace' or non-disturbance, where no more excavations will take place, despite the near-certain treasures lying in the permafrost. "Ukok Quiet Zone" is actually divided into three zones – the zone of non-disturbance itself, recreational and economic area. In the economic and recreational areas some activities are allowed (excursions, scientific. tourist and economic activities), but the area which contains the burials doesn’t allow any excavations. The access to this territory is done through border zone with pass control.

According to Molodin (2012) this "deprives the world of a valuable scientific inheritance". He argues, too, that the issue is critical since global warming means the ancient bodies will decay Scientists reckon there are thousands of burial mounds here, hundreds of which date to the Pazyryk period, many of which may contain answers to questions about where we come from. (Siberian Princess reveals her 2,500 year old tattoos, 2012)

Mass Media coverage of archaeological research and its consequences

Events associated with the excavations were covered in all sources of Mass Media. To prove the significance of these findings, it is necessary to mention that it is hardly another question of the kind that would have worried the public of several regions over 27

such a long period. All similar events arise and disappear from the agenda, but any reminder of these mummies (although uniquely preserved) always causes a storm of criticism or support.

In June 2005, archaeologists V. Molodin and N. Polosmak were awarded with the Russian State Prize "for the discovery and study of unique complexes of Pazyryk culture VI-III cent. BC in the Altai Mountains." Without exception, all federal TV channels produced broadcasts with the award ceremony.

Six months later, Channel One, first among the Russia's country-wide channels, has put on the air premiere of the documentary film with a threatening title "Revenge of the Altai Princess". The movie was dedicated to excavation works of Molodin and Polosmak at plateau Ukok, more precisely, their consequences – in that way how the authors perceived it.

Many articles in regional newspapers were characterized by presence of hoax and propaganda of superstition, which could be explained by the aim of consolidation Altai people and creation of indigenous identity. However, Alena Zharovskaya’s movie "Revenge of the Altai Princess" is characterized as full of ad-libbing and mystical nonsense. Thanks to forgery information, clippings individual words out of the context interview, and shooting members of sects, the author managed to completely distort the process of excavation. And to promote the "cult Kadyn" based only on the abstract "predictions of Kams" across whole country, if not the world.

Now known to all Russia, and, thanks to the efforts of television, Altai-Russian problems seriously discussed and refer to the excavation. Siberian archaeologists now perceived as clumsy amateurs and "those who bother ancestors of Altai people."

Archaeological problems

Under archaeological problems are understood some recent problems or threats that occurred while doing excavations. However, it does not exclude the fact that some of them are pending till nowadays. These threats were following:

• Lack of knowledge in mummies` preservation methods

After the mummies were found, the scientists had a lack of knowledge how the mummies should be preserved and – what is more important – how they should 28

be demonstrated to the broad public. Advanced age of mummies and the natural condition they have been kept in were unfamiliar to the Russian scientists. The main issue became the fact that the scientists never dealt with the mummified bodies whose age reached thousands of years. The normal practice was mummification of persons who died recently (e.g. mummification for Lenin`s Mausoleum in Moscow). Scientists had to research other examples of mummies` preservation worldwide (including Iceman in Austria). As a result both mummies were not only restored by best Russian scientists in Moscow, but also their soft and bone tissues, hair and genotype were particularly studied (Derevianko & Molodin, 2000, p. 11). The problem is considered to be solved.

• Eternal frost hindered conducting of further archaeological research

Permafrost in the burial chambers had not only the positive impact on the state of mummies, but also hindered conducting of further archaeological research in this area. In order to lead excavations archaeologists had to use warm water to thaw the ice in lenses. That "inappropriate" way of conducting excavations confronted the resentment of locals who believed the mummies to be sacred and not deserved such a treatment.

Current problems in conservation of frozen tombs

At the moment there are several threats of conservation of the frozen tombs in Altai Mountains, all of them have different character and state of emergency.

• Global warming leads the melting of the area’s glaciers and of the ice lenses in the tombs

The thorough analysis of meteorological data has shown a clear tendency towards the warming of the climate, this being particularly evident during the winters. This warming has multiple consequences, including the thawing of the permafrost. Due to the estimates the glaciers have lost up to 27 % of their mass over the last 100 years, with average retreat rates now standing 29

at between 9 and 20m per year (UNESCO. World Heritage Centre, 2008, p. 26-27).

• Anthropogenic problem

Anthropogenic problems assume active human activities and his influence on the environment and on cultural-heritage sites in particular. Sometimes the problem presumes economic activities led in the area that could cause the irreplaceable loss to cultural properties and to the environment in general.

In order to mitigate this, a new law concerning cultural heritage properties in the Russian Federation now regulates the study of archaeological sites situated in economic-development zones. Article 40 of this law stipulates that "under exceptional circumstances, the terms of conservation of archaeological properties includes emergency field archaeological activities undertaken within the procedures determined in Article 45 of the present Federal Law". This law and other measures aim to facilitate the study of endangered sites that are deteriorating because of anthropogenic and natural factors, including the frozen sites on the Ukok Plateau and in other locations in the Altai Mountains (UNESCO. World Heritage Centre, 2008, p. 27).

This threat is rather characteristic for all the frozen tombs in the Altai Mountains and not to particular two tombs (Upper Kaldzhin 2 mound 3 and Ak-Alakha-3 mound 1).

• High costs of mummies` preservation

In order to keep the needed humidity and temperature level for a mummy`s preservation, a special equipment is required. According to V. Molodin`s estimations the approximate monthly costs for this could reach up to twenty thousand US-dollar, which is an astronomic sum for a small local museum in the Altai Region. 30

Connection of the site with politics

Unfortunately, how it often happens a site, especially the one of a great significance and importance for locals, can become a toy in hands of politicians. It partly became so with the female mummy of the supposed Princess of Ukok.

• The spiritual connection of the contemporary Altai tribe with the Altai Princess has been speculated by politics

The spiritual connection of the contemporary Altai tribe with the Altai Princess is so strong that after the transportation of her for research purposes to Novosibirsk (Siberia), community began to strike for its return. The situation became worse when slightly earthquake shocks began to appear several times per day. Altai aboriginals being heathenized connected this natural disaster with the revenge of the Altai princess and demanded her back.

For Altai inhabitants the Princess was considered to be holy relics, the keeper of rest and greatness of the tribe. "Princess of Ukok is not only a religious and spiritual, but also a cultural and historical heritage of all Altai people", states the commitment letter of Altai people to the government of the region. After several demands including letters addressing governmental bodies on different levels, the head of the republic gave a speech on television and promised to bring the princess back to Altai.

The mummy was skillfully used in election programmers of other politicians. Candidates promised to the electorate to bring the mummy back.

Novosibirsk archeologists, where the mummy was kept, repeatedly declared that they are not against transferring of the mummy to Gorno-Altaisk, but a special equipment would have been needed for it which was not in disposal of a local museum.

The mummy was brought back to the region (museum of Gorno-Altaisk) in September 2012.31

• Different visions for mummy`s preservation

Altai people demand the ritual burial of the princess in the Altai mountains.

But being officially an object of the cultural heritage on the federal level, the mummy cannot be buried. Article 25 of the federal law states the following: "Objects of cultural heritage of the outstanding archaeological value get the status of world cultural heritage."

Same law foresees the legal liability for damaging the mummy. That means that persons having caused the damage to the mummy are obliged to reimburse the costs of recovery works and are not released from the criminal liability. That means that those who would bury the female mummy will be sent into prison.32



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