From Unsustainable To Sustainable Development

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

The industrial revolution unleashed in its wake, massive development, especially in Europe and America. Fueled by fossil fuels these economies witnessed industrial activities in scales hitherto unimaginable with newer and bigger orbits of growth being achieved as a matter of natural consequence. However, this self perpetrating rush for growth and development, two vital issues were conveniently ignored:

The Earth’s resources are finite and therefore they will run out sooner or later. With exponential growth in their consumption and usage the prospect of their getting extinguished will only be hastened. Peak Oil, is a prime example.

That there are adverse effects of burning fossil fuels. The rate at which mankind is burning them and releasing carbon di oxide in the atmosphere cannot be matched by all the plants on Earth that convert such CO2, resulting in increasing concentration of the gas with its attendant problems. Again, the pollutants that such industrial activities give rise to as by-products are seriously damaging the fragile eco system. The result is what we loosely term as climate change and global warming.

By the time Mankind really took cognizance of the facts, the damage has already been done with the wheels set on motion that will have far reaching (and needless to say, terribly adverse) consequences for the world we live in.

The rich, industrial nations that have by now been used to a lifestyle of conspicuous consumption with inordinately huge carbon footprints, were and are, still not ready to sacrifice their pangs for industrial development to offset the corrosive results of their ecological sins. To appear responsible, they sought out the common high ground, that of sustainability – a lifestyle that urges one to consume in a manner that we leave enough for the future generations. It is about the optimal usage of resources by inducting efficient technologies that reduce wastage and increase per unit efficiencies on the one hand, while consciously taking steps to reduce the adverse effects of pollution.

The idea is not to put a cap on development. While the industrially developed countries in the west have already reached optimum levels, there are a number of nations, BRICS for example, that are today waiting to keep their tryst with economic development. Thus it will neither be possible for the world at large to sacrifice development on the altar of climate change, nor will it be just and equitable. Therefore, the logical way out will be to embrace sustainability – to walk the path of development, but like responsible world citizens aware of the pitfalls on the way and concerned, not only about conserving but also about consuming only what is essential so that we may leave a cleaner, greener and more prosperous world for the children of tomorrow.

6.2 Urban problems related to energy

The world is increasingly becoming urban with more and more people migrating to the cities in search of food, work and shelter. While some are being forced to relocate as opportunities dry up in their traditional lands, some are travelling in search of a better life while still others are forced by climatic conditions that make their homes inhabitable.

As urban communities consume more energy per capita than their rural counterparts, such an influx is sure to have an adverse effect on the demand for energy. With prevailing systems that are heavily dependent on fossil fuels as the primary source of energy, such growing demands are creating energy bottlenecks which threaten to blow out of proportions if not addressed immediately. The global demand for energy far outscores the supply for the same and with increased industrialisation and urbanization the gap is becoming wider by the hour. Add to it the fact that energy production cannot be scaled up the way previous generations had considering the fast depleting resource base and the concerns of sustainability and climate change. The per unit cost of generation will also become a limiting factor as the cost of energy, following natural laws of demand and supply go up to levels unimaginable.

The social and economic fallout of such an energy crisis are certain to be catastrophic and the debate about the steps needed to address and mitigate have been raging for long. The answer is a massive drive to harness non-conventional energies. However, these sources generally have high cost of technology as effective entry barriers and may not be as abundantly acceptable as fossil fuels are. The result too is predictable. While we are aware of the impending doom, we can do precious little than inch towards the inevitable.

6.3 Water management

The belief that water is abundant makes people use lots of water for drinking, cooking and washing; much more water is used for producing things such as food, paper, cotton clothes, etc.

"The virtual-water content of a product (a commodity, good or service) is the volume of freshwater used to produce the product, measured at the place where the product was actually produced (production-site definition). It refers to the sum of the water use in the various steps of the production chain. The virtual-water content of a product can also be defined as the volume of water that would have been required to produce the product at the place where the product is consumed (consumption-site definition)".

The human impacts on freshwater systems are related to the patterns of human consumption. Issues like water shortages and pollution and water crisis can be better understood and addressed by considering production and supply chains as a whole. Water problems are closely tied to the global economy. Many countries have started externalizing their water footprint. They import water-intensive goods from outside. This in turn exerts pressure on the water resources in the exporting regions. Wise water governance and conservation are the need of the hour. Governments, consumers, businesses and civil society communities all must play a role in achieving a better management of water resources.

Water Footprint is an indicator of both direct and indirect use of water by a consumer or producer. The water footprint of a person, company or nation is defined as the total volume of freshwater that is used to produce the commodities, goods and services consumed by the person, company or nation. The concept of the water footprint is somewhat similar to that of ecological footprint, but it focuses on the use of water.

The global water footprint for the period 1996-2005 was 9087 Gm3/year (74% green, 11% blue, 15% grey) of which agricultural production contributes 92%. Fifteen thousand liters of water (93% green, 4% blue, 3% grey water footprint) is needed to produce just 1 Kg of beef. The water footprint of a 150-gram Netherlands soy burger is about 160 liters and that of a beef burger requires about 1000 liters. Japan has about 77% of its total water footprint outside the country. About 20% of the US water footprint is external.

Grey water or sullage

Refers to the wastewater generated from domestic activities such as bathing, bathtub or shower, washing clothes and washing machine, dishwashing, sinks, etc. It derives its name from its cloudy appearance and can be recycled on-site for landscape irrigation and constructed wetlands. Grey water differs from water from the toilets which is designated sewage or black water to indicate it contains human waste. Dishwasher and washing machine run only for full loads can cut household water consumption by an average of 1,000 gallons per month.

Black water

Black water, or sewage is the wastewater from toilets, garbage grinders, feces, and other human body fluids, considered hazardous. The sewage is different from grey water as it contains bacteria, pathogens, and food particles, which can rot and decompose. The filtering system for black water treatment is generally located outside the home. Black water recycling systems are expensive - both installation, and maintenance. It is also more difficult and costly to treat. Water recycled from black water should never be used as potable water or on food crops because they may not be fully disinfected. Recycled black water can be used to water the lawns and non-food crops/gardens. Plants grown with recycled black water hardly need any fertilizer.

6.3.1 Water conservation

Human life is threatened by unequal rainfall. Such uneven distribution hampers their livelihood and economic wellbeing. This ever increasing scarcity of water is due to the exploding population especially in the developing countries, increase in demand for foods, sanitation, urban inflow and improved standards of living. Three fourth of the earth is covered by water yet the world is thirsty and need to depend on the skewed fresh water supply for their sustenance. World Bank report states that about two billion people are subjected to inadequate sanitation facilities and about a billion do not have access to clean water. The year 2005-2015 has been declared as "water for life" decade by the UN while the cities continue to dump and dispose sewage into the water supply. Such unhealthy water has become the reason of all health maladies infested with a number of pathogen and parasites. Water scarcity in water stressed countries is likely to jump six fold in the coming 30 years which raises concern about all the activities associated with water like, agriculture, industry and household use. Inequity in water sharing is another problem. Researches show that developed countries with raised standards of living demand more and more water than a developing country. The problem might be solved by assigning a monetary value to the fresh water. The value of water is often undermined as it is still a free commodity. Several countries like Israel, Japan and Saudi Arabia have installed desalination plants. Large scale installation of such plants may generate fresh water but is likely to create other issues. It is estimated that some 11000 desalination plants exist in about 120 countries all around the world. The population has doubled in the last few years coupled with economic growth and urbanization. Relocation in newer areas requires more food, more shelter, more energy, more clothing; more daily needs all thrusting additional pressure on the fresh water supply. Almost 41 % of the world population resides in the river basins that are under severe water stress. Climate change seems to result in erratic climatic behavior- drought in some parts, flood in the other; melting and receding glaciers etc. Increased energy production, increased industrial waste, increased waste water, pesticides and fertilizers all aggravate this problem to much extent. Moreover, these toxic residues may leach and contaminate the underground aquifers. Much of the water is also wasted due to leaky irrigation practices to clean water.

Clean water is essential to life. As stated, about 1.1 billion people do not have access to water. Two third of the world population may face acute water shortage by the year 2025.This means there will be not enough water to drink, irrigate, or wash, resulting in outbreak of water borne diseases. Half of the wetlands have been destroyed. Wetlands provide an array of ecosystem services like they are a habitat for fishes, birds, amphibians, retiles, mammals and other invertebrates. They serve as nurturing beds for various species. They act as effective filtration system, protect us again storm surges, flood etc. They also provide for ecotourism spots. Natural landscapes are often wiped out. Land degradation, forest depletion, erosion, desertification and other ecological catastrophe are obvious consequences of water scarcity. Notable example is the Aral Sea that has almost lost an area of the size of Lake Michigan.

When water is scarce and the supply is limited, effective and efficient water management seems inevitable at global national local and personal levels. Human beings were least bothered to revere water due to its abundance. But now, every drop counts. Our irresponsive attitude has resulted in the deterioration of both water quality and quantity. There is a dire necessity to go for proper management and conservation of water. Projects like water footprinting and water stewardship are undertaken under United Nations and World Economic Forum. Water risks, water use and their impacts, Climate change adaptations, are been studied and promoted by WWF in collaboration with industries. Several international treaties are being negotiated to protect different types of water bodies. The water management and distribution by government has disrupted the system and mentality of community participation.

For efficient water conservation and management, the following points are to be kept in mind:

1. To promote public awareness about - water necessity, indispensability and conservation of water.

2. Active participation of local people in all water management activities, like rain water harvesting, drip irrigation, etc.

3. Not to use treated water for gardening, washing toilets and so on.

4. Prevention of drying up of underground aquifers and promoting recharge of ground water.

5. Not to discharge pollutants and contaminate water.

6. Water shed, which is a basin of a tributary, can be used usefully for integrated development.

6.3.2 Rain water harvesting

"Conscious collection and storage of rainwater to cater to demands of water, for drinking, domestic purpose & irrigation is termed as Rainwater Harvesting."Traditionally there was a system of collecting rainwater and storing it for future use in India. This system was time-tested wisdom. Traditionally water was harvested in Jheels, Bawaries, step wells, lakes, tanks etc.

Ground water is naturally recharged through percolation. But due to rapid urbanization and reduced exposed surface of soil there is a reduction in rainwater percolation, thereby depleting ground water resource. Rainwater harvesting is such a process of augmenting the natural rainwater filtration in to the underground by some artificial methods. There are two processes of rain water harvesting – Surface runoff harvesting and roof top harvesting of rainwater.

The surface runoff can be caught in the cities and towns and then used for recharging aquifers. In the rooftop harvesting, the rainwater is caught from the roof, stored of passed through an artificial recharge system. If properly implemented it helps in raising the ground water level of the area.

The surface receiving rainfall directly is known as the catchment which can be the courtyard, terrace, paved or unpaved open ground. The roof can be flat or sloped.

Rainwater collected should be carried down with the help of UV resistant water pipes to storage/harvesting system. Water from sloping roofs are caught through gutters and carried down through pipes. The mouth of the each drain should be fitted with sieve or wire mesh to restrict unwanted substances.

A device called first flush is used to flush out the first shower of rain so that the probable contaminants in the rain water and any deposition on the roof top do not enter. The provision of such separator should be at the outlet of each drainpipe.

Proper filter mechanism is adopted to avoid rain water contaminating ground water. Filters are used to effectively remove turbidity and microorganisms. There are diverse types of filters in practice. The sand gravel filter, charcoal filter, sponge filter and PVC- pipe filter are widely used.

 In storage and direct use, rain water collected from the roof is diverted to a storage tank, designed according to the water requirements, amount of rainfall and availability of catchment. Each tank should preferably have excess water over flow system. This water can be used for washing, gardening and bathrooms.

The excess water could be diverted to recharge system by various methods to ensure percolation of water rather than draining from the surface.Commonly used recharging methods are percolation Tanks, dug wells recharging, recharge trenches, recharge shafts, bore well recharging and recharge pits.    

 

Case study – RWH in Frankfurt Airport, Germany

On an average the rainfall in Germany ranges between 563- 855 mm. It had cost about US $ 63,000 in the year 1963. It was installed with and expectation of handling 13 million people/year and saves about 1, 00,000 cu m of water annually. The roof with an area of 26,800 sq. meters provides as a catchment. The water is transported to six storage tanks of 100 cubic meter capacity in the basement. The water is used for washing clothes, toilet flushing, gardening and cleaning of air conditioners, etc.

Case study – Technical University of Darmstadt

In the university, the rainwater harvesting system is used for toilet flushing and laboratories supply for cooling and cleaning purposes, since 1993. This system can meet 80 % of the water demand and saves about 80,000 cum of drinking water per year.

Case study – Gansu Province in China

Gansu is a province in Central China with highly variable annual rainfall of 300 mm. The months July to September receives 60 % of the annual rainfall and this factor attribute the people of that region with poverty. People depend on rainwater and frequent storage of surface runoff in 20 cu meters of clay lined underground cisterns is seen. But this isn’t enough for the dry periods and they either have to walk long miles for water of have to depend on government supply. The government provided each family with one clay tiled roof catchments area, two water cellars made of cement and plastic sheeting for directing rainwater runoff on one field. Traditional clay lined ‘shuijiao’ (water cellars) were lined with cement or concrete and upgraded and fitted with small metal pumps. The bare earth catchments were replaced by proper tiled roof catchments and cemented courtyards. A trench was dug around this was to collect rainwater and used for watering the gardens. This simple, operative, inexpensive, approach has helped over 200,000 families and warranted with sufficient water and good yield to around one million people was provided. By the year 2000, a total of 2,183,000 rainwater tanks had been constructed with a total capacity of 73.1 million cubic meters in Gansu Province that can supply drinking water to about 1.97 million people and supplement irrigation service for 236,400 ha of land.

6.3.3 Watershed Management

Watershed management is the study of the characteristics of a watershed with the idea of planning and setting up of efficient systems with a view towards sustainably and optimally use the water resources of the area for the greatest common good. The concept is to utilize and enhance the water within the watershed boundary for the plants, animals and the humans within the space. Water supply, water quality, drainage, rainwater harvesting, storm water runoff, ground water levels, water rights are critical components that are paid heed to the managers of watersheds.

One of the biggest problems of watershed management is ground water contamination or the pollution of the water, which can either be due to industrial effluents or the unscientific use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers in agriculture.

The most important question that Watershed Managers have to answer is whether to consider water as an economic good, with its attendant costs and benefits or as a social good, which is for all to access and consume, paid for by the society. The answer of this question leads to whether the water that is made available to the population within the domain as a commercial good, paid for the individual depending on his usage or is given away by the authorities for all to enjoy as other ubiquities like sunlight and air are?

6.4 Resettlement and rehabilitation of people; its problems and concerns. case studies

Melting polar caps due to global warming are releasing water into the Oceans, leading to rising sea levels. This rising sea promises to inundate vast tracks of land around the world. Let us concentrate on the Sunderban areas of India and Bangladesh which are today threatened with sea water submersion.

Thickly populated and impoverished, the rising sea levels threaten to render the entire populations of this area homeless as their lands get submerged. Already reeling under poverty, over population and food shortage, Bangladesh will not be in a position to relocate, rehabilitate and resettle these people – the climate refugees - within her boundaries giving rise to a terrible humanitarian problem, which will raise a number of pertinent questions that will need to be answered, not only by Bangladesh but the world community at large.

The climate refugees and their status

The Geneva Convention that laid down the meaning of the term did not extend its meaning to embrace climatic causes rendering people homeless. Thus today, while political persecution and enemy action may accord one the right (?) to be treated as a refugee, one forced to become homeless by the rising seas cannot be considered as one. Consequently, these people, homeless, helpless and hapless will have no protection under the global laws. A free radical of a refugee with no defined rights, a liability if there was ever one.

Where will they go?

As the primary cause leading to the rising sea level can be traced back to the burning of the fossil fuels for development, the lion’s share of the blame should logically go to the industrially developed nations. These are the Nations that should be morally responsible for the plight of these people and help in their resettlement and rehabilitation. But the sad fact remains that these nations, by coincidence or sinister design, have the most stringent immigration laws. The writing on the wall is clear – those who contributed the most to global warming that led to your loss of habitat, have their doors firmly shut on your face.

Where will the money come from?

Removing an entire population, re-skilling, resettling and rehabilitating them will call for huge sums of monies. As of now, there is concrete proposal as to where these sums will come from? Who should foot the bill for this colossal effort is something that is not even in the agenda of discussion among the global leaders, leave alone the working out of a mechanism so that the United Nations (or some independent body) by the imposition of a Sin Tax (Carbon Tax) raise the money, prepare a war chest and use the proceeds to ensure that the plight of these people are addressed, that too at the least possible hassle and pain.

Are we bothered?

The answer is an overwhelming no. Primarily because people in a third world country are normally considered to be sub human, whose plights do not concern the citizens of the first world. The fact that climate is a great leveler and that the wheels that have been set on motion by the wanton consumerism and pursuit of instant gratification may claim its first victims in the mangrove forests of the Sunderbans may not concern the perpetrators. That the same climate will one day bare its fangs closer home is still something that has not dawned in the west. The sooner the world realizes that climate change and global warming are not issues that can be contained by artificial and man-made boundaries and that they threaten us all, equally the better.

The possible solution

We have brought the world to such a pass and it is on us Mankind at large, to frame the response. The problem is global. The problem is universal. The treat equally spread, irrespective of region or boundaries. The response too, has to be uniform – a worldwide effort. It is not about Bangladeshis, it is about humans and the faster we realize this and take mitigational steps the better.

6.5 Environmental ethics: issues and possible solutions

Morality is an expression of human culture and it is the moral behavior that develops moral virtues. A number of philosophies came up that deals with man’s relationship with the environment. In anthropocentrism Humans are of prime importance and value. Humans hold the crown position of creation and are of immense importance. All other life forms are subordinates and important only to the extent to which they affect the human beings. In this ethic, nature is only considered as because protection and degradation can benefit or harm the human beings. It is simply human chauvinism and holds human to be the measure of all things. Western thinking is largely anthropocentrism. Books like Confessions of an eco- warrior by Dave Foreman and Green Rage by Christopher Manes have postulated anthropocentrism. This gave birth to shallow ecology which considers human beings above and outside nature and is the source of all value. The term shallow ecology was coined by Arne Naess, a Norwegian philosopher later epitomized by Gifford Pinchot who viewed earth as a set of natural resources that is required to be managed for the present and future generations of the human race. This ecology fails to vision the intrinsic value of all and their value to each other.

In contrast Deep ecology, the living environment is taken as a whole where all have the same right to live and flourish. It emphasizes on the intrinsic equality of species including humanity. It asks deeper questions such as why and how. In the concept logic and facts are unable to answer the ethical questions; for this what we need is ecological wisdom that focuses on deep questions, deep thinking and deep commitment. It is much more than science; it involves spirituality and respect for all beings. Much of these ideas can be related to ancient religion like Buddhism and Jainism. A natural follow up is ecocentrism that considers ecosphere rather than any individual organism to be the source of life and sustains life.it believes that biotic community as a whole maintains a homeostasis in all ecological processes and ecological structure. This ethic conceived by Aldo Leopold advocates that all species are a product of the evolutionary process and are intricately related in their life processes. The philosophy is also outlined in ‘Gaia Hypothesis’ by James Lovelock where earth in its entirety is treated as living and single organism functioning through a vast array of relationships.

6.5.1 Resource consumption patterns and the need for their equitable utilisation

A resource is anything that can be used by humans. Resources that occur freely in nature are natural resources while resources developed my man for his own consumption are human resources like schools and hospitals are human resources. Resources can be further classified as renewable – that can be replenished and non renewable, which once used cannot be reused like fossil fuels.

When we speak of resource consumption patterns and the need for equitable distributions, we speak primarily of non renewable resources. As such resources are not distributed equally, the question of their use comes into sharper focus. It is natural to presume that a country that is rich in natural resources will be economically developed while a country that is not endowed naturally will lag behind.

Japan, which does not have any mineral base to talk about is an example of the opposite, which has walked the development path by up scaling its human resources while the Democratic Republic of Congo is an example of underdevelopment despite being well endowed with natural resources.

As development is directly related to the consumption of resources, the countries that have reached development having consumed the resources of their colonies are today in a position to continue on the growth path by accessing the resources of less developed countries or by securing their supply lines from resource rich countries like Australia where the demand for the consumption / conversion of such resources is relatively lower.

If a holistic view is taken then it will be amply clear that the resource consumption by the countries to the North of the divide is much higher than those in the South. What is more alarming is the fact that consumption in the north is much more frivolous than in the south with scarce resources being diverted to quench needs for instant gratification and conspicuous consumption than for meeting the natural needs for growth and development. This consumerist use of scarce resources is giving rises to concerns about ethicality, which when viewed in the light of Malthus’ prophecies take menacing proportions.

To put it bluntly, countries in the North are ecological debtors (whose ecological footprints are bigger than their bio capacities – ability of the biosphere to carry the people and consumption patterns), while those in the South are generally ecological creditors, their lack of development leaving resources under utilised.

And it is exactly here that the questions of equitable utilization comes in. Not only will resource utilization have to be sustainable in the future for a just and equitable world order to emerge, the consumption patterns will have to change drastically to ensure that the scarce resources are first used to meet the basic needs of the world’s poor before they are deployed to feed the fancies of the rich.

Case Study - Pani Panchayat scheme in Pune

Pani Panchayats are councils set up for conservation, management and distribution of water resources on equitable basis in Maharashtra. The council have been set up by Vilasrao Salunkhe and the Gram Gaurav Pratisthan Trust to address all issues of water scarcity in drought prone Maharashtra. Mr. Salunkhe selected Naigaon village of Purandhar block of Pune District for soil and water conservation measures project that would contribute towards rural development. Purandhar block is one of the most drought prone areas in Maharashtra. The average annual rainfall ranges in between 250mm and 500mm, but, the rainfall pattern is very erratic and uncertain. The area experiences drought almost once in every three years on an average.

The technological and social innovations in this council help repair and restore the degraded watersheds. This in turn increases water harvests and guarantee each family an equal share of the water harvested, meeting the goals of equity. Every member of the family is typically allowed water for cultivation at the rate of half an acre / head, subject to a maximum of 2.5 acres per family. In other words, 1000 m3 of water per head / year subject to maximum 5000m3 / family per year is supplied.

Mr. Salunkhe started by trying to convince the local community by explaining them the importance of soil and water conservation. He was encouraged to take the responsibility of demonstrating the impact of a watershed development programme, which is essential for sustainable development. He took 14 acres of land on lease and started his project in dry farming through watershed management approach. 9.60 hectares were brought under protective irrigation, 2.40 hectares under afforestation and the remaining 4 hectares came under the percolation tank, well, field bunds, tract and other infrastructures. Initially the farmers of showed little interest, but were amazed to see the production of 200 quintals of food grains. 40 acres of their own land could hardly produce 10 quintals. They grew interest.

The number of lift irrigation schemes has gone up to more than 100 in about 10 years and most of them are functioning well. The villagers are able to produce two crops a year with an irrigation provision of eight months. Another implication of the Pani Panchayat has been the increase in employment opportunities, which also induced reverse migration. The reason behind the success lies in the unity between the villagers and strict obedience to the rules and regulations laid down by the Pani-panchayat which is a unanimously elected village body.

6.5.2 Equity – disparity in the northern and southern countries

The disparity in resource consumption takes two extreme stands, depending upon from where the problem is viewed. From the north, it looks like a sea of hungry, overpopulated swarms ever hungry and capable of eating away all the resources of the world. "Check population growth or else, Malthus will unleash war and pestilence",being their common refrain to the brethren at the South.

From the south however, it is simply a matter of conspicuous consumption – a case of the rich diverting the scarce resources of the world for frivolous pursuits. Resources that should be utilised to create wealth for the masses capable of eradicating hunger and poverty, they feel, should be rightly deployed as opposed to currant usage patterns that are not only uneconomical, but unethical to boot.

The truth, naturally struggles somewhere in between, pulled as it is by these two diverse forces. The fact however, is that the more we are able to shrink this gap, the so-called north-south divide, and the faster we do it is not only good for the people but also the world at large.

The division between the North and South is basically on the basis of socio economic and political differences. The North comprises the West, first world and the richer and developed nations in contrast to the south having the poorer and less developed countries. All the G8 countries belong to the North Block and comprise North America, Western Europe, Australia and Japan. As nations become more and more economically developed, they gain influence and so become a part of North, irrespective of their geographical location. The South covers Africa, Asia and Latin America. 95% of the people here lack adequate food and shelter. They are rich in resources but lacks proper education and knowledge to utilise it. They do not have appropriate technology and are politically unstable. A good measure to find out which block a country is located is the Human Development Index (HDI). Countries with value nearer to 1.0, indicates greater level of country’s development. A visual representation of the North – South Divide is the Brandt Line, proposed in 1980 by Willy Brandt, The West German Chancellor. It moves around the world at approximately 30oN latitude but dips down to include Japan, Australia and New Zealand into the North.

6.5.3 Urban – rural equity issues

Rural lifestyles are more sustainable – cleaner, greener and healthier. However, the lure of the cities, with their tinsel tomes and seductive opportunities have been a draw since the dawn of mankind with a steady trickle of migrating people becoming townsfolk. With the rural economies coming under increasing pressure, the urban- rural divide is becoming wider with the traditional trickle of migrants becoming a steady flow. This migrating hordes are not only putting the civic amenities of the cities under severe pressure but are also creating in their wake pressures on the environment as well as life in the city is generally less sustainable than in the villages. More and more electricity is being consumed; water has to be provided for drinking and sanitation as the other basic amenities. All this ultimately lead to the burning of fossil fuels and it has been seen that marginal increases in the urban population leads to a disproportionately bigger carbon footprint.

6.5.4 The need for gender equity

Even before we strive for gender equality, understanding gender dynamics of resource management should be the starting point of mankind’s response to resource degradation. It is man who harnesses the forces of nature with women traditionally providing him with the support systems.

The developing world's 1 billion plus rural poor make up the world's largest group of natural resources users and managers. Understanding their roles and responsibilities - including the gender dynamics of natural resources utilization and management - is the starting point for reversing the process of environmental degradation.

Women manage natural resources all the time in their roles as farmers and household felicitators. Typically, they are responsible for growing crops, and often have unique knowledge of local cropping patterns. To meet family needs, rural womenfolk walk long distances to collect wood and water. Despite their reliance on natural resources, women have historically had lesser access to and control over resources than men. Usually it is the men who put land, water, plants and animals to commercial use, which is often more valued than women's domestic uses – just like the lionesses of the pride doing the actual hunting while the lions have the manes.

Gender inequality is most evident in access to land. Custom prohibits women from owning land in many cultures and countries. Mostly, women have only use rights, that too, mediated by men, and those rights are highly precarious to put things mildly.

Without secure land rights, farmers (increasingly women) have limited access to credit - and little incentive - to invest in improved management and conservation practices. Women and men are more likely to make environmentally sound land management decisions when they have secure ownership and know they can benefit by accessing credit facilities at cheap rates.

Improved water management, especially irrigation and fertilizers, is critical to higher agricultural productivity and conservation of the resource. Women farmers have limited access to irrigation networks or, when they do, to irrigation management decisions: membership of water users' associations is often linked to land ownership which naturally goes against them. Women's limited water entitlements force them to use subsistence agricultural practices that may lead to soil erosion, a major source of instability in watersheds apart from huge opportunity losses.

Over generations, small-scale farmers have shaped a wide diversity of crop species and animal breeds. Commercialization of agriculture, driven partly by global trade in high-yielding crops and animals, is responsible for a rapid decline in agro-biodiversity, which threatens not only local production but, ultimately, global food security, apart from pushing many a marginal farmer over the threshold.

To protect their natural resources, rural women (and men, to a lesser amount) must be empowered to participate in decisions that affect their needs and vulnerabilities. Addressing the gender dimensions of natural resources management will help policy makers formulate more effective interventions for their conservation and sustainable use of the earth’s resources, which can and should be put on use for the greatest common good.

6.5.5 Preserving resources for future generations

The very core of man’ response to climate change and global warming is sustainability. Sustainability, put simply, is a practice that leads to rational use of resources in the present so that enough resources are left for the use of the future generations. It is opposed to wanton consumerism and stresses on optimal and rational consumption in the present.

6.5.6 The rights of animals

Being the most evolved of all the creatures on Earth, and sitting bang at the top of the food chain, it is for the Humans to be compassionate about the rights of the animals. But what exactly are Animal rights? At its simplest, it is the idea that some or all nonhuman animals are entitled to the possession of their own lives. That, animals have a right to their most basic needs and interests – such as an interest in not suffering – and should be afforded the same consideration as to the similar interests of human beings. Advocates oppose the assignment of moral value and fundamental protections on the basis of species membership alone (an idea that gained currency in the 1970’s as speciesism, when the term was coined by Richard D. Ryder). They agree for the most part that animals should no longer be viewed as property, or used as food, clothing, research subjects, entertainment (as in a circus), or beasts of burden. Every animal is a cohabitant on Earth and its rights to food, life and procreation should be honoured. All animals should be left to live the life their instinct leads them to live and should not be subjected to human intervention, leave alone use them as staples of our consumption, be that for physical needs like food and clothing or of entertainment.

A charitable organization, "People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals" (PETA), founded in 1980 by Ingrid Newkirk and Alex Pacheco, based in Norfolk, Virginia in US is perhaps one of the world’s largest animal rights organization. It is based on the principle, "animals are not ours to eat, wear, experiment on, or use for entertainment."

PETA focuses on four principal issues; opposition to factory farming, fur farming, animal testing, and use of animals in entertainment. It also battles against fishing, killing of animals pests, chaining of dogs, cock fighting, dog fighting, and bullfighting. It also works in the field of public awareness and education, investigative work, animal rescuing, legislative works and media coverage which in many ways have bettered the lives of animals, saved countless lives of animals and encourages vegetarianism.

6.5.7 The ethical basis of environment education and awareness

Environmental education comprises an ethic that ensures improved behavior and attitudes among the communities towards the environment. It enables us to achieve social and economic goals based on ecologically sound principles to strive equilibrium between resource management and nature. Environmental Education (EE) lies within the notion of Sustainable Development. That is, "meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs". (Brundtland,1987). The needs can be social, political and economic. The needs of future generation can be met by minimizing the use of nonrenewable resources and reducing the generation of wastes and also keeping in mind to keep the limit of was

absorptive capacity of local and global sinks. The concept of environmental education for sustainable development has been defined by Fien in1993 as: "The development of human capacity and creativity to participate in determining the future, encourage technical progress as well as fostering the cultural conditions favouring social and economic change to improve the quality of life and more equitable economic growth while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems to maintain life indefinitely"

Improving the environment needs a change in the human behavior and attitudes. A new approach to Education and Awareness goes further than the transfer of knowledge and awareness raising activities and also focuses on the context in which the individual find himself, the concept that was upheld during the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.

The basic principles of EE are

To promote environmental education for all communities.

To elicit critical and innovative environmental education.

To develop local and global citizenship.

To focus on inter disciplinary and holistic approach in the relationship between the community and nature,

To ensure equality and respect for human rights; cultural interchange.

To address critical global issues within their social and historical context.

To involve all stake holders in decision making.

To have knowledge in history and indigenous local cultures; to promote cultural, linguistic and ecological diversity.

To empower for grassroots democratic change, promote opportunities and participation that may ensure communities control over their own destiny.

To acknowledge all forms of knowledge,

Designing Environmental Education curriculum in a way that it will enable people to manage their conflicts in just and humane ways,

To encourage conversation and cooperation between individuals and institutions to innovate new lifestyles meeting every ones basic needs, regardless of ethnicity, sex, age, religious, class, physical or mental differences.

To utilize mass media in a democratic manner to cater to the interest of all sectors of society through the exchange of knowledge, values and experiences,

To incorporate knowledge, expertise, values, attitudes and activities, that will transform every opportunity into an educational experience for sustainable civilizations.

To develop an ethical awareness, by respecting all life forms and imposing substantial limits on human exploitation of other forms of lives.

6.5.8 The conservation ethic and traditional value systems of India

For 5000 years, the Indian civilization has evolved a highly developed way of life that taught successive generations how to live in sync with nature. Our traditional value systems taught us the lessons of taking from nature only that part that was needed and to ensure that by conscious acts we ensured replacement and replenishment of the resources used.

However, under the British Rule, when the focus had shifted to exploiting India’s resources much of this traditional knowledge was discarded, often banished by arguments in favour of modern science. Since independence, when the focus of the nation shifted to the utilization of our resources in an often unequal fight against poverty and under development, the needs of the hour ensured that these traditional value systems and knowledge banks were largely ignored.

Today, as we stand face to face with a prospect of India keeping her tryst with destiny, in a world order that is facing the resource crunch, we are becoming increasing aware of our legacy. On the one hand is the agenda of feeding the teeming millions and helping them rise above the poverty line, while on the other is the acute need to optimally use our resources so that we may morph into a strong and vibrant economy with a solid industrial base. These two extremes have to be addressed using sustainable means so that we may achieve our development without causing harm to fragile eco system in which we operate in.

And it is here that out traditional knowledge about the forces of nature and the means to harness them in the most sustainable and eco-friendly way is coming in. Yes, we will have to use the raw power of science but with the ethically correct mindset that is enriched by traditional ways so that we may win, win and win again.

6.6 Global environmental issues

6.6.1 Climate change & Global warming

Global Warming and Climate change are terms that are used almost interchangeably. However, careful scrutiny will reveal that one is the cause, while the other is the effect.

Global Warming is the result of the temperature of the Earth increasing. Some of the Sun’s rays bounce back from the atmosphere, whereas some are trapped by the greenhouse gases like Carbon Di Oxide and Methane which keeps the Earth warm. This process is known as the green house gas effect and contrary to popular beliefs; it is as old as life and is actually beneficial. These green house gases are both naturally created and man-made (anthropogenic) and comprise of the following: Carbon dioxide, Hexafluoride (SF6), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Ozone, Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and Water Vapor.

What is harmful is the fact that due to various reasons like the indiscriminate burning of fossil fuels, the green house gases in the atmosphere are currently at a historic high which is naturally trapping more heat than ever before. This in turn is leading to the Earth gradually heating up, at alarming rates according to some scientists. The higher concentration of green house gases in the atmosphere is also adversely affecting the natural balance which has evolved over millions of years and what effect they will have is still unknown to a very great extent.

Green House Gases (GHG’s), their effect and global warming are, contrary to popular belief, not terms that have come into being in the last decade or so. In fact, scientists have known about the greenhouse effect since 1824 when Joseph Fourier postulated that the Earth would be much colder if it had no atmosphere and it is the greenhouse effect that makes the Earth habitable. It was, again way back in 1895 that the Swedish Chemist Svante Arrhenius discovered that humans can enhance the greenhouse effect by emitting carbon di oxide.

The result of this global heating of the earth is manifesting itself in various ways – the polar ice caps are melting, leading to a rise in the sea levels. As the Earth continues in its eternal spinning motion, the rise in heat swirls with it, picking up more moisture from the oceans, settling them as rain elsewhere. This dance of creation gone berserk is changing the rhythm of climate as we have come to know it. This in turn has given birth to the monster called "Climate Change". To put things simply; Climate Change is the change in the climate that is caused, either directly or indirectly by human activities. There is approximately 5,773,000 cubic miles of water locked up in the ice caps, glaciers, and permanent snow. According to the National Snow and Ice Data Center, the seas would rise by about 230 feet if all the ice forms melt. At the current rate of withdrawal, all of the glaciers in Glacier National Park is estimated to gone by 2070. The melting ice caps will heave the global ecosystem in imbalance. The ice caps being fresh water source will desalinate the ocean after they melt and mix with sea water. The desalinization of the Gulf will "screw up" ocean currents that regulate temperatures. The temperature rises and changing landscapes will endanger several species of life forms in the Artic which will enable only the most adapted to survive. Some polar bears are reported to be drowning as they have to swim longer distances to reach ice floes. Without proper action, the polar bear are likely to become extinct in Alaska by 2050. Ice caps reflect back sunlight into the space, further cooling Earth. In absence of icecaps the only reflector to be left are the oceans. Scientific prediction states that a 1.5°C global temperature rise may witness the disappearance of 25% of the Earth’s animals disappear and a 3°C rise may see almost 30% of biota to disappear. According to IPCC, a warming of 1°C above 1990 levels would result in the bleaching of all coral reefs and transformations of 10% of global ecosystems, whereas a rise in 2 o C above 1990 levels will kill the coral entirely.

Since the thermometer was invented, we have already witnessed eleven of the twelve hottest years between 1995 and 2006. This decade has been the warmest since 1880. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), in 2010, the year 2010 was tied up with 2005 as the warmest on record. (See Table -)With the Earth becoming hotter the menace of climate change too will occur – what is alarming is the fact that such changes will occur faster than many species can adopt to the change with disastrous consequences. According to EPA, temperatures could rise an average of 2 to 11.5 o F (1.1 to 6.4 o C) by the end of the 21st century. Rising sea levels are already threatening to inundate vast tracks of coastal areas with many islands with their unique eco systems facing obliteration. The weather will only become harsher and move towards extremes – the winters will become colder, the summers warmer and the monsoons more erratic. While some parts of the world will face severe draught and desertification, others will be inundated, needless to say causing extreme and untold misery.

As countries in the north warm, vectors and carriers migrate north, carrying pathogens with them. There will be more genetics variations and mutations in microorganisms. This may lead to outbreak of malaria, dengue fever, Hanta virus and several air and water borne diseases that may assume the magnitude of epidemics. Global warming is likely to become a risk factor for heat strokes, cardiovascular and respiratory problems. Heart patients are especially vulnerable because their cardiovascular system has to work more to cool the body in hot weather conditions.