He Us Clean Air Act

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

Generally air pollution occurs in two forms known as outdoors or indoors air pollution and this is usually caused naturally or by human activities. Outdoor air pollution is of major concern in both urban and rural areas of developed countries and developing countries. However, it should be noted that a different mix or air pollution may be found in the countryside to that found in urban cities. Amongst the most common types of urban air pollutants caused by human activities are nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrocarbons and particulate matter. The most reported common sources of these air pollutants are power stations and industrial plants notoriously known for producing sulphur dioxide. Also included is road transport which is responsible for producing Carbon Monoxide, Particulate Matter and Nitrogen Oxides. Lastly, Ozone is another pollutant which is formed in the air as a result of chemical results. Ozone usually builds up in cities in hot weather, however, it has been reported that higher levels are found in the countryside because of the special nature of the reactions involved in its formation. On the other hand, indoor air pollutants include gases like Carbon Monoxide and Nitrogen Dioxide usually emitted from faulty gas heaters and cookers. Also Carbon Monoxide and Benzene can be emitted from cigarette smoke and Volatile Compounds from synthetic furnishings, vinyl floors and paints. (Holgate et al, Chapter 7 and 8).

Worldwide, air pollution has been reported to cause major problems from exposure to particulate matter and ozone in many developing countries and developed countries. For most countries great concern is placed on the impact of human health and wellbeing, although the health of urban population is determined by many factors which may blur the picture. (http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-04.htm). Annually, air pollution is estimated to cause at least 2 million premature deaths worldwide. According to reports carried out by the WHO, air pollution is a major cause of respiratory and heart disease as well as lung cancer. Furthermore, air pollution can kill animals especially fish in highly polluted rivers. A number of research carried out by Defra in the United Kingdom has indicated that air pollution also has major effects on the environment by causing damage to plants and animals thus affecting biodiversity and crop yields (http://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/air-pollution/effects). It has also been reported that deposits of air pollution affects ecosystems, changes biodiversity and reduces water quality. Additionally, Sulphur Dioxide and Ozone irritate the airways of the lungs and this is reported to worsen the symptoms of those already suffering from lung diseases. Also particulate matter can be carried deep into the lungs which can lead to inflammation and worsening of those suffering from heart and lung diseases. (Smith, 2002). In the UK these air pollutants are measured and monitored in rural and urban locations. The 2008 ambient air quality directive (2008/50/EC/0 which is a European legislation measure, was introduced to manage and improve air quality in both the UK and all the countries in the European Union, also this provides legally binding limits for concentrations in outdoor air of major air pollutants that poses a threat to human health. (http://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/air-pollution/uk-eu-policy-context).

Historically air pollution problems in both developed and developing countries were mainly contributed by high levels of smoke and sulphur dioxide emitted from the combustion of sulphur containing fuels such as coal, generally this is used for domestic and industrial purposes. However, nowadays the major threat to clean air in both developed and developing countries is now posed by traffic emissions. Petrol and diesel engines motor vehicles emit a wide range of pollutants in the form of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and particulate matter and this have an increasing impact on air quality. Furthermore, pollution caused by these sources may not only be a problem in the immediate vicinity of these sources, but can be transported to long distances through the air ( Agrawal and Singh 2003).The common sources of air pollution are household combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial facilities and in some reported cases forest fires. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) an estimate of 3 billion people uses solid fires and leaky stoves for cooking and heating up their households. Furthermore, about 2.7 billion people burn biomass fuels in the form of wood, animal dung, crop waste and a further 0.4 billion uses coal, this is a common practice in developing countries. The majority of these people are poor and live in developing countries notably in Africa, Asia and Latin America.

Available research indicates that air pollution is high in a number of Asian cities such as Karachi, New Delhi, and Beijing and Cairo in Africa. The Highest levels of air concentrations of particulate matter and sulphur dioxide are found in Africa, Asia and Latin America, whereas the highest levels of secondary pollutants like ozone and nitrogen oxide are reported in Latin America and some of the larger cities in the developed countries. Air pollution has become one of the main environmental concerns in Asia, especially in China where the pollution load mega-cities like Beijing, Guangzhou and Hong Kong is substantial. In these cities, between 10 and 30 per cent of days exceed the national air quality standards by a factor of three to five times that of the WHO air quality grade. To worsen the situation, these cities have experienced a 10 per cent growth in traffic each year over the last 6 years and it is not getting any better even with emission controls, pollutants concentrations have remained almost constant over the same period of time.( Hester & Harrison 2009: 2-7).In recent events reported by the BBC news in January 2013 air pollution in Beijing have reached soaring levels hazardous to humans, it is bad to the extent of tasting coal dust and coal fumes in the air. Reportedly, some people have to wear masks in order to protect their health (.http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china).

Evidently a steady growth in vehicular transport have made road traffic the most important source of urban air pollution in many countries. When comparing urban air quality around the world. Five cities appeared at the top twenty polluted cities for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and particulate matter. These five cities are all in China and reflect the dominance of both local and regional sources of industrial, domestic and vehicle emissions. In both developed and developing countries air pollution from vehicle emissions is of major concern. Local and regional transport emissions are responsible for the high levels of nitrogen oxide observed in Milan, Sidney, New York, London and Los Angeles. Furthermore, another concern in industrial and urban areas in both developed countries and developing countries is sulphur dioxides which are caused by volcanic activities and industrial processes, for example those that use coal and petroleum can lead to acid rain. Also Nitrogen Oxides which occurs as a result of high temperature combustion, can lead to acid rain .Volatile organic compounds often exist in greater concentration indoors, and the main sources are paints and cleaning supplies, they usually have chronic effects. In developing countries emissions from household use of fossil fuels for cooking in the year 2000 was estimated to account for 1.6 million deaths mainly amongst women and children. However, it is the opposite in developed countries, people mainly use gas and electricity which is environmentally friendly compared to fossil fuels. (Hester & Harrison 2009:3-4).

In developed countries emissions intensities have been reduced through technological developments and environmental regulations by governments, this contributed to improved air qualities over the last 20 to 50 years. In the UK emission of Sulphur Dioxide, Nitrogen Dioxide has declined. Some argue that a decline in steel and coke output on the UK since 1988, the privatisation of British Steel, and the decline of the use of coal for power generation are responsible for the drop in Sulphur Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxide emissions .In most developed countries indoor air pollution is a major problem, energy efficiency improvements sometimes make houses relatively airtight, reducing ventilation and raising pollutant levels. In urban areas exposure to indoor air pollution has increased due to the use of synthetic materials for building and furnishing, use of chemical products, and pesticides. Furthermore, in developed countries there is a lot of smoking outdoors and indoors, smoke causes problems because it generates a wide range of harmful chemicals which are known to cause lung cancer. Also, passive smoking causes a wide range of problems to passive smokers ranging from burning eyes, nose and throat irritation to cancer, bronchitis and severe asthma. Furthermore, in developed countries, modernization has been accompanied by a shift from biomass fuels such as wood to petroleum products and electricity. However, in most developing countries most households use simple biomass fuels even where cleaner and more sophisticated fuels are available. Although the proportion of global energy derived from biomass fuels fell from 50% in 1900 to around 13% in 2000, there is evidence of increased usage amongst the poor. (Bruce, Perez-Padilla & Albalak 2002).

As mentioned earlier, people from developing countries suffer from poverty as well as limited financial means. They often use fuels such as dung, wood or coal to meet energy needs for cooking and heating. Indoor air pollution results from using solid fuels in shelters without sufficient ventilation. it has been reported that at least 1.6 million people die annually from indoor air pollution .The use of solid fuels for cooking and heating without chimneys is said to be responsible for 2.7 per cent of the global burden of diseases .Together, indoor and outdoor air pollution are estimated to cause 2 million premature deaths in developing countries each year. In China some reports suggest that the total number of premature deaths has been constantly increasing from 418,000 cases in 2001 to approximately 514,000 cases in 2011 .The proportion of the global population in developing countries is rising (estimated to be 85 per cent in 2030). If this growth continues, energy and transport use are also likely to rise, this will cause an increased release of pollutants into the atmosphere. (Cheng, Jiang and Fajardo 2013). Acute Respiratory Infections (ARI) in children such as pneumonia is the chief killer of young children worldwide. ARI kills at least 4 .3 million children annually. It is well known to be enhanced by exposures to urban air pollutants and indoor environmental and tobacco smoke. According to Smith (1993) some studies were carried out in Zimbabwe and Gambia to monitor the impact of air pollution on children in developing countries .In Zimbabwe, 244 children under 3-years-old reported to a hospital with lower respiratory disease were compared to 500 similar children reporting to a well-baby clinic. It was discovered that woodstoves were used in the homes of ill children, this was compared to stoves using fuels such as kerosene from the homes of the healthy children. The researchers monitored pollution levels from the two groups of children and it was discovered that kitchen particle concentrations were four times higher in a sample of the home of ill children unlike in the homes of well children. Overall, the risk of respiratory infections was increased by a statistically significant factor of more than two for children living in homes where cooking was done on an open biomass-stove. Furthermore, in another study of 500 children in Gambia, girls under the age of 5 carried on their mothers back during cooking (in smoky cooking huts) were found to have six times more risk of acute respiratory , a substantially higher risk factor than parental smoking.

In comparison with a developed country, this literature will use the United Kingdom as an example to illustrate the impacts of air pollution in developed countries. The main health effects experienced in the UK are mainly due to smog and transport emissions. In the UK, smog can develop in the summer as sunlight acts on nitrogen dioxide and particles to form low-level ozone, and in the winter pollutants build up at ground level and become trapped under cold air. In most case smog affect children specifically, contributing to asthma, pneumonia and low initial birth rates. On the other hand, transport emissions have been reported to contribute to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Although the UK has currently lowered the amount of air pollutants released into the atmosphere significantly, air pollution is a continuing health concern, as even low levels of air pollution can affect mortality and morbidity. In the UK if existing levels of air pollutant emissions are not checked, poor air quality will continue to worsen lung conditions, particularly among children and the elderly, not only worsening individual quality of life, but also contributing to greater health care costs for treatment. Without change in air pollutants, life expectancy will continue to be cut by an average of 7-8 months per person, costing up to ??20 billion in health costs. The steady growth in vehicular transport and centralization of domestic heating have made road traffic the most difficult source of urban air pollution in many countries .In respect to local contribution from different sectors there are generally significant differences between developed and developing countries .In a comparison of two so mega-cities (Beijing and Paris) demonstrated that aerosol particles and volatile organic compounds have a complex and multi- combustion source in Beijing , whereas a single traffic pollution source completely dominates the urban atmospheric environment in Paris. (Hester & Harrison 2009: 3-20).

Environmental effects of air pollution include direct impacts on vegetation or indirect effects on acid and nutrients in soils and waters. Particulate matter can also cause damage to structures and property, and sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides contribute to acidification soil and surface water. According to Smith 2002, outside of health and environmental concerns, continued or increased levels of air pollution could affect land value as areas with poor air quality becomes less desirable areas to live and this depreciates the land value .Although legal limits on air quality are met in most land areas in the UK, there remains densely populated urban areas with significant human exposure to particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide. Some areas of London are well over the European Union limit values on nitrogen dioxide. Spatial divides could emerge between those able and those unable to afford to live in areas with good air quality, creating another dimension of inequality.

If air pollution continues at current levels in the UK, policymakers should consider ways to minimise increased health care costs, changing land values, and disproportionate negative impacts in urban areas and on lower income groups. Policymakers could also introduce legislation to provide incentives that encourage people to convert to cleaner fuels and use more fuel efficient vehicles or energy sources. The London Congestion Charge introduced in the UK exemplifies legislation to improve environmental conditions and curb air pollution in the heavily congested areas of London. (www.tfl.gov.uk/roadusers/congestioncharging) Alternatively, control devices could be used on specific emissions, such as particulate control. The UK has already implemented controls on industrial air pollutants, and could explore opportunities to control other emissions, for example, in large scale transport activities. Air pollution could also be addressed through the provision of more detailed and available regulatory scales that communicate the relative risk of outdoor activity to the public.

Limiting air pollutants emissions could be more difficult in developing countries. Cities in emerging economies have some of the greatest challenges with air pollution from domestic and industrial use. This is a particular concern when considering the futures of poorer developing countries that are seeking to embark on processes of economic growth and industrialisation similar to the emerging economies. If air pollution is side-lined in efforts to enhance economic growth and industrialisation, a growing number of cities in the developing world could face increased health and environmental costs due to air pollution. Measures to address air pollution have been taken in some areas of developing countries, for example pressure to introduce cleaner fuels for transport resulted in the introduction of compressed natural gas buses in Delhi, in India (depot.gdnet.org/cms/grp/general/India%2007.pdf) .According to a report carried out by WHO, desires and pressures to become competitive in global economy, and the cost efficiency of different fuels, could prevent widespread change to cleaner industrial and domestic activities in developing countries .Furthermore, the inability or unwillingness to mitigate rising air pollution in developing countries could contribute to an international divide between countries with regulation and resources to limit air quality, and those countries with fewer resources that neglect air quality concerns.

Pirintsos and Loppi 2008 suggested that international and regional action is necessary to in order minimise air pollution across developing countries, and to deal with the long-term impacts of caused by certain types of air pollution. However, such a process may be difficult and challenging .In the UK, air quality is managed and monitored by local authorities especially in cities and organisations like Defra. Although there are international agreements and conventions on air quality, such as the Geneva Convention on Long-Range Trans boundary Air Pollution (1979), control over the form and scope of enforcement and regulation remains nationally based. While most developed countries have enforced emissions standards and regulations this is not the case in many developing countries. Pakistan for example, the country has high air pollution and ineffective enforcement laws regulating industrial effluents and has allowed a large number of factories to dump their toxic waste in main water bodies .Additionally, because of the unequal resources of different countries it would be difficult to coordinate action at international and regional level. It is difficult for developing countries to implement air quality regulation and technology standards because they often lack economic or technological resources to enforce a move towards using cleaner fuels. Investments or aid from the developed countries could help to encourage developing countries to industrialise based on clean renewable energy sources, which could improve life quality and provide positive financial returns in the long term.

Despite all the problems reportedly caused by air pollution, human exposure to air pollutants is usually assessed at personal level and population level using a wide range of monitoring and modelling techniques which can make its reliability questionable. The techniques used have certain advantages and disadvantages and limitations associated with their accuracy, reliability of equipment and cost that make them more or less suitable for different applications. Most epidemiological and risk assessment studies so far been based on ambient air pollutant concentrations rather than population exposure estimates. We need to think beyond the ambient pollution levels to consider what ultimately concerns us about the worlds degraded air quality and the damage it causes. These include impacts on human health, built structures, natural resources and on ecosystems. Great efforts should be made to educate healthcare providers and members of the public the sources of air pollution and the potential hazards. Governments and organizations like WHO should actively work together to educate the general public and public policy makers about the impacts of air pollution on cardiovascular and respiratory diseases by featuring presentations, leaflets and public education activities and advocacy. 3394 words