The Interpretation Of Dreams

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02 Nov 2017

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To many people, dreams are the thoughts that occur while sleeping, having almost mystic qualities. For millennia the significance of dreams has escaped even the brightest of philosophers and intellectuals. Many people have speculated about why people dream and what meanings the dreams have but in recent times two theories have gained credibility in answering those questions. The first theory is Sigmund Freuds and the other is known as the cognitive theory of dreams also known as biological determinism. 

Freud presented his theory about dreams in the book The Interpretation of Dreams in 1899. In it he sets out to prove "there is a psychological technique which makes it possible to interpret dreams" and that interpretation has a significant meaning to "waking life" (Freud 35). Freuds theory not a new theory; Joseph interprets Pharaohs dream in Genesis 41 of the Bible. Though even in the Bible dreams are given a mysterious quality, Freud states that logical thought can identify both obvious and hidden meaning in dreams. To interpret the dreams, the subject must be three things: comfortable, relaxed, and open-minded. To relax and be comfortable the subject should lie down and close his or her eyes. Closing the eyes also helps increase concentration on thoughts. Next, the subject must say everything that comes to mind and not reject certain thoughts because they may seem unimportant. Freud calls this process "free association" because by having thoughts follow thoughts, associations can be seen between two seemingly unrelated subjects (Freud 133-134). 

Once the patient is ready to talk about the dream the person analyzing the dream asks certain questions to get more information about the dream, a technique more home to the psychiatric field and not covered in this essay. With information gathered interpretation can begin. Freud outlines methods of interpreting dreams. The first is a symbolic interpretation of the dream. This method identifies symbols in the dream that represent something in the waking life, making the dream simpler to understand if done correctly (Freud 129). The second method is to "decode" the dream. Symbols are said to be universal and every symbol has a counterpart that it represents in the waking life. In effect the real meaning of the dream is encoded into universal symbols and must be decoded to understand it (Freud 130). 

Freud found two meanings in a dream: the manifest meaning and the latent meaning (Freud 168). The manifest meaning of a dream is what is remembered upon waking (Felluga). The manifest meaning can reflect a situation that follows common sense and unfold in a way possible in waking life. Other times it can take its own wild path that follows little or no logical sequence when viewed at surface level. Despite this vast difference, both of these are influenced by the superego, a part of the mind that Freud believes houses the knowledge of the structure of society and what is acceptable in the dreamers culture. The dream takes place on a stage or backdrop that makes sense and relates to waking life (Freud 216-17). While the manifest meaning is useful and can itself contain a message, interpretation of it can reveal more than seen at face value. 

The second meaning in a dream Freud labels the latent meaning. The latent meaning signifies the hidden message in the dream, the unconscious thoughts presenting themselves in sometimes simple terms but sometimes in vast and complex ideas, known as dream distortion. Dream distortion is the change that occurs to the unconscious thoughts as the mind translates from the latent meaning into the manifest meaning and finally portrays that as the dream. Interpretation of the manifest meaning reveals the latent meaning of a dream and with it the desires of the dreamer (Fish). Freud believed the latent meaning contained a wish of the dreamer and the dreamer uses the dream to fulfill the wish (Freud 155-156). Many difficulties arise when deriving the latent meaning of a dream. 

Not only do dual meanings exist in dreams but the reflection of the dream may be skewed; Freud calls this "secondary revision". Secondary revision refers to the process of using ideas and wording not found in the dream to make the dream more coherent. During secondary revision, the dreamer may try to patch contradictions in the dream or insert thoughts that link two sections of the dream together in a logical way (Phillips). By doing this, the dreamer distorts the original message of the dream, possibly destroying important associations linked in the dream. Secondary revision is not necessarily a conscious act by the dreamer; he or she may think that this makes the job of the analyst easier by creating a more understandable dream but the opposite is true. This can also occur in an attempt by the dreamer to remember the dream; connecting the pieces of the dream in a logical way may make the dream easier to remember and recite. 

Several mostly subconscious forces can work against the analyst interpreting a dream, including repression, condensation, and displacement. Repression is the act of self-censorship on the part of the dreamer (Felluga). Many influences cause the dreamer to explain the dream with a slight but significant difference from the original. Also, the dreamer may not discuss a part of the dream, believing it to be irrelevant. He or she may divulge the whole dream but soften some of the rough parts. All of these unoriginal influences to the dream make the task of interpreting the dream a difficult one. 

Condensation can also make the job of the analyst difficult. Condensation refers to the combining of several thoughts into one within a dream (Felluga). Instead of one source for a thought that can be easily identified, there may be two or three intertwined. Condensing multiple unknown thoughts into one known but abstract thought makes unraveling the thoughts is quite a challenge. Another issue, similar to condensation, is displacement. Displacement occurs when one object takes the place of another in a dream. A best friends face being replaced with an enemy or famous person is an example of displacement. The dreamer recognizes one object but that object subconsciously symbolizes a different one. Determining when displacement occurs in a dream creates yet another difficult task for the dream analyst get complete. 

The role of dreams as wish-fulfillers is a key belief in Freudian dream theory and has caused dissension among many scholars. Examples such as nightmares which Freud refers to as anxiety dreams and dreams of death are often used to refute the idea of dreams as wish-fulfillments. Many modern day scientists introduce the new knowledge of the brain and process of sleep to propose an alternate theory to Freuds. 

New studies into the brain and brainwave activity during sleep have given rise to a second theory about dreams. Studies have shown that the body undergoes two stages during sleep, Rapid Eye Movement (REM) and Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM). Three-fourths of an adults sleep is spent in NREM sleep ("What" 2). There are four stages of NREM sleep and one stage of REM sleep and during the night a sleeping person will periodically cycle through the stages in a particular order. The purpose of NREM sleep is to rebuild and recharge the body. Brain waves become slow and rhythmic, muscles relax, blood pressure decreases, and growth hormones are secreted at their highest levels of the day (Miller). Research has shown that few dreams occur during NREM sleep and those dreams that do occur are much less vivid than dreams during REM sleep ("What" 2). 

REM sleep cycles through the night in intervals of less than thirty minutes per cycle while the NREM stages of the cycle last for about an hour (Miller). During REM sleep the body is practically paralyzed but the brain is fully functional. Most dreams occur during REM sleep so there is no surprise that the limbic system, part of the brain that controls emotions, is active during REM sleep. Another section of the brain active during REM sleep is the anterior cingulate cortex, which is responsible for "detecting discrepancies" in thoughts and ideas. Not so surprising, the prefrontal cortex, responsible for logical thought, is active in NREM sleep but no during REM sleep ("What" 2). This explains why dreams often do not follow logical sequence and confuse the dreamer. 

Scholars who support this theory, referred to as the "cognitive theory of dreams", cognitive means thinking or reasoning, believe dreams are the body thinking while asleep. Calvin Hall presented a paper on the cognitive theory of dreams about how dreams are tied to the Freuds concept of the ego. He describes dreams as "a succession of images, predominantly visual in quality, which are experienced during sleep" (Hall). The dream is a hallucination much like those induced by drugs. Images projected in the mind get animated into a scene. Hall relates the dream to a motion picture with other characters along with the dreamer and an audience, the dreamer. The images in dreams are the representation of thoughts and since the dreamer is the only one viewing this motion picture, the symbolism of the thoughts is very personal to the dreamer. Thinking is the process of conceiving without direct stimuli. This occurs in dreams, cognition without a direct stimulus, which means the dream is a serious of thoughts rolled into images and then splashed into the dreamers mind (Hall). 

With a message hidden within the dream, a "translation" can be taken of the dream, based on information gathered from other dreams. Much like the decoding method of Freuds interpretation of dreams, this translation uncovers the thoughts behind the images. This translation is inherently different from Freuds in that it discovers the thoughts, or in other words how the dreamer reacts to waking events, instead of searching out wish fulfillments. Based more in the ego than the id, these translations reveal a reflection of the dreamer upon him or herself, the dreamers place in the world, or the dreamers relationships with other people (Hall). Though the logical part of the mind is not as active during dreams, logic does have a limited effect, allowing for some fuzzy reasoning to take place. Thinking can take place during dreams, and does, but not to the same caliber as waking thought. Several sub-theories have been under the header of cognitive theory of dreams. 

One sub-theory believes that dreams are a way of training the dreamer to deal with a difficult situation, a test of the "Emergency Broadcast System" (EBS) in a way ("What" 3). Dreaming about the death of a loved one or being held at gun-point allows the person to work through the difficult situation and plan a course of action without actually being in any danger. That way, if the situation were to arise, he or she has a better chance of dealing with the situation successfully due to prior training and planning. 

Ernest Hartman, a psychiatrist at Tuft University, believes "people often deal with traumatic events through dreams". Hartman studied the dreams of people before and after the Sept. 11 attacks and found their dreams to be more intense. He believes the "intensity is a measure of emotional arousal" though he gives no examples ("What" 3). Another sub-theory, similar to the EBS theory believes dreams can aid in learning. Running through dance routines or a play in a dream can help memorize the actions through repetition ("What" 3). In this way the dreamer prepares for the upcoming event and practices even in his or her dreams so he or she does not mess up. This may be caused by anxiety about the event or in anticipation of it. 

The cognitive theory of dreams takes into account the biological activity of the body during sleep. Study of brain activity and chemicals in the brain during dreams have brought new light to the origin of dreams. Dreams are bizarre movies we watch during our sleep in which we are the main character and are able to control the outcome to an extent. The dreams loosely follow a movie plot, the problem is presented, and a solution is contemplated and tested. When the outcome does not meet the standards the dreamer desires, the dreamer can replay the dream and try a new solution. 

So what of these two theories about dreams? Freud says they are the expressions of unconscious desires, the emotions of the person portrayed in a visual and audible manner. The cognitive theory of dreams says they are caused by sleep patterns and can be used to deal with the days problems in a seemingly logical way. Freuds theory ties dreams closely to his belief in the "id," the raw, emotional self, natural and untainted by society. Cognitive theory ties more closely to the concept of the ego, the balance between the raw self and the ideals put forth by society, giving a more logical view of the situation. Holes exist in both these theories but by combining them, and adding in new pieces, the holes can possibly be patched. 

Freud presented his theory well before the current knowledge of how the brain functioned existed. He did not over concern himself about biological activity during dreams and it would have been quite useless with the knowledge of the brain at that time. Instead he focused on the function of dreams, why they happened, their purpose. He saw relationships to the content of his dreams and to his environment. People he knew turned up in dreams so they could not be just random movies he watched at night, they had some relation to his waking life. He also noted that what happened in his dreams did not depict how he seemed to feel about people. The emotions and associations brought up in dreams did not reflect those of his waking life, instead they must come from somewhere else. 

Since these dreams did apply to his life but not his waking life, Freud reasoned there must be some alternative thought processes occuring. The idea of unconscious feelings and desires seemed to fit well with the data he had so he explored. If this were the case, why did were these desires unconscious and not conscious? His theory of the id, ego, and superego came into play. These desires were taboo in society yet they were still present in him. That explains why they are presented in dreams, to shadow the raw feeling with something more inoffensive. Freud sought to find out what these hidden meanings were and developed the symbolic and decoding methods of interpreting dreams. 

Each of the two methods of interpreting dreams, symbolic and decoding methods, has its flaws. Symbolic interpretation cannot be strictly defined. Each symbol may have a different meaning for different people depending on the situation. It also is difficult to use when interpreting overly complex and confusing dreams. The decoding method depends entirely on the accuracy of the "key" used to decode the dream (Freud 132). Such dependency creates high risk of error and therefore an unreliable method in some cases. To patch these flaws, Freud uses his idea of free association and breaks the dream into parts. By presenting the subject with just part of the dream and asking for feedback, "background thoughts" can be brought out. The pieces make the dream simpler to work with and the free association can be used to identify important symbols. Through numerous interpretations, a flexible key can be created to use to decode the dream. Though the decoding method still carries with it some amount of risk, the analyst can be surer of the links between symbol and meaning by using the associations of things in the dream as identified by the dreamer. A medium between the two methods, using the decoding method at first and determining if the decoded message applies to the dreamer, if not, use the symbolic method to find the symbols in the dream and how they relate to the dreamer, using associations to identify the symbols. 

Another problem with interpreting dreams is the inaccuracy of the information. Due to things like second revision and repression, the dream gets altered and loses its original content and possibly the true meaning. Dream analysts would have a difficult time, if dream interpretation is even possible, determining when these things happen and reversing their effects. The idea of reciting dreams and basing an interpretation of that information may be inherently flawed. This assumption is not grounds for denial of any theory about interpreting dreams but must be considered. 

Freuds theory may apply to humans but what about animals? Freuds attempt at answering this question is weak at best. To address the situation he merely says he does not know what animals dream about but quotes a proverb about geese dreaming about maize and claims it proves his theory of wish-fulfillment. MIT had a few more answers than Freud on the subject. A study of the dreams of a rat showed that the rat dreamt of experiences from waking life. By studying brain activity during the day and then comparing it to brain activity while asleep, patterns could be recognized between the two ("Animals"). Though science understands very little about the dreams of animals compared to those of people, it provides more of an explanation than Freud attempts. Based on this limited knowledge though, animals do not seem to carry the same quality of dreams as wish-fulfillers as humans do. 

Hall and Freud are not in direct opposition to each other in their interpretation of dreams. Both use a similar method and have a comparable outcome. Since emotions are much stronger than logical thinking during dreaming, the dream depicts emotions far more than thinking. Emotions are not limited by logic and can carry out any outcome desired in the dream. In this way, the emotions Freuds id are brought forth through recalling thoughts and reacting to them. Thus dreams can in fact express the fruition of a wishes or desires. 

The research into sleep cycles and brain activity during sleep and dreaming offers great insight into the effect of dreaming on the body but does not prove or disprove either theory presented. The one thing it fails to address is the trigger of dreams. Dreams occur during REM sleep but what causes them to happen and why during that period in the cycle? It has been documented by the medical field that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), depression drugs like Prozac, reduce dreaming by as much as half ("What" 2). The dreams still occur so while the SSRIs may have a role in causing dreams, it does not vital to the equation. 

An important aspect to dreams that Hall overlooks is the audio content of the dream. While dreams consist of mostly visual images, the audio content of the dream can play a vital role in interpreting the dream. Much like visual displacement, audio displacement could occur in the dream, a kitten roaring like a lion for example, and could add a great deal of necessary information about the dream to the analyst. 

Dreams continue to mystify people though many theories have been presented. Each theory lacks a vital piece of the puzzle but by piecing several theories together, a more complete picture can be found. While this collage of theories does not give the full view of dreams, how they are created and what significance they play, it gives scientists answers to look for. Despite scientific data backing the theory of cognitive theory of dreams or Freuds sensible theory about dreams, many people cling to their beliefs in dreams as a cheap and surprising form of entertainment while sleeping. People will continue to base decisions on dreams and see them as omens but many philosophers and scientists are working hard to give people a more reasonable explanation about dreams. Who knows if we will ever see the whole picture but in the meantime we can enjoy dreams the unique perspective they give us about life. 



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