The Main Aspects In Pqrst System

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

One of the benefits of reading is to improve our knowledge. When we read, we will get more information regarding on what we read and it can expand our mind. Book, magazine, comic, and sometimes television, required us to read. So, we must read to get the information on what the word is written about. Reading also can improve our vocabulary. During reading, like the challenging one, we will expose with many different or new of words. In this situation, to make us understand on what we read, we will find the word in dictionary or other method like asking friend. When we know what is the word is, indirectly we learn a new word and help us for the later use. Other than that, reading can improve our focus and concentration. When we focus, we will learn to pay attention. It makes us to stay calm and make a better decision especially when we face a difficult and challenging assignment. More than that, it can improve our creativity. Kids love to read a fairytale story. When they read, they start to imagine on what their read. Their mind is channelized to think about the different aspects, they make question about it and derives conclusions about the story. So, they will think the new creative idea by the help of the information on what they get in the book. When we bored, book is the easiest way to reduce it. Reading the book not only make us stop being bored but make us have a wonderful time to relax.

Reading skills

There are three types of skill we can use in reading. One is SQ3R, SQ5R and the other one is S-RUN-R. This method can improve our reading to understand and to gain information. SQ3R is a short form of these five steps that is, survey, question, read, recite and review. In survey, we look through the whole chapter including the title, headings, subheadings, caption on pictures, introductory paragraph, concluding paragraph, summary and etc. Question is the step where we do a question about the title, headings and subheading. The third step is read. When we read, note all he underlined, italicized, bold printed word or phrases. Reread again the captions under pictures, graphs and etc. Reduce your speed for difficult passages or stop and reread again the part we not clear. We ask question regarding what we want to know about the book that we read. Answer the question that we just do before the process of reading or after we finish read. Underline or highlight the important word is one of the processes in the recite step. We also can do the summary or take note from the text we read by our own word. Choose any of the three processes that most suit you. The last step is review. Flash cards, note or other materials that we do during this SQ3R step, can be used to review for a few minutes every day for several days. If we cannot recall one of our major points, reread the section again.

SQ5R is survey, question, read, respond, record, recite and review. It is almost the same with SQ3R. The only difference is to respond and record. In respond, this is the step that we must think about the material and take notice of what is important. Record is to underline key concepts and take note on a separate sheet of paper, note cards or the margins of the text book after reading.

The S-RUN-S is the easiest way to apply it. It is a combination of Bailey’s S-RUN reading method. S-RUN-S is a short form of survey, read, underline, notetaking and review. The step of survey is the same with SQ3R. In read step, we must write the first heading on a piece of notebook paper next to the left margin. Read the section and think critically about the materials. Underline is the process where we underline or highlight the important information after reading the paragraph. The forth step is notetaking. As we finish the underline or highlight the important information, look back to our notebook paper and take note on the key information. Briefly summarize the important information and write the notes with meaningful phrases using our own words. The last step is to review. In review, we will reinforce the important information. Doing the end-of-question, create a recall column in textbook or notebook and write a recall question, may help us to this step of review.

Using S-RUN-S method

BASIC ELEMENTS OF C++

DATA TYPES

The objective of a C++ program is to manipulate data. Different programs manipulate different data. A program designed to calculate an employee’s paycheck will add, subtract, multiply, and divide numbers, and some of the numbers might represent hours worked and pay rate. Similarly, a program designed to alphabetize a class list will manipulate names. You wouldn’t expect a cherry pie recipe to help you bake cookies. Similarly, you wouldn’t use a program designed to perform arithmetic calculations to manipulate alphabetic characters. Furthermore, you wouldn’t multiply or subtract names. Reflecting these kinds of underlying differences, C++ categorizes data into different types, and only certain operations can be performed on particular types of data. Although at first time it may seem confusing, by so type-conscious, C++ has built-in checks to guard against errors.

Data type: a set of values together with a set of operations.

C++ data types fall into the following three categories:

Simple data type

Structured data type

Pointers

Simple Data Types

The simple data type is the fundamental data type in C++ because a building block for the structured data types, which you start learning about in Chapter 6. There are three categories of simple data :

Integral, which is a data type that deals with integers, or numbers without a decimal part.

Floating-point, which is a data type that deals with decimal numbers

Enumeration type, which is a user-defined data type.

Integral Data Types

Integral data types are further classified into nine categories :char, short, int, long, bool, unsigned char, unsigned short, unsigned int, and unsigned long.

Why are there so many categories of the same data types? Every data type has a different set of values associated with it. For example, the chardata type is used to represent integers between -128 and 127. The int data type is used to represent integers between -2147483648 and 2147483647, and the data type short is used to represent integers between -32768 and 32767.

Which data type you use depends on how big a number your program needs to deal with. In the early days of programming, computers and main memory were very expensive. Only a small amount of memory was available to execute programs and manipulate the data. As a result, programmers had to optimize the use of memory. Because writing a program and making it work is already a complicated process, not having to worry about the size of the memory makes for ones less thing to think about. Thus, to effectively use memory, a programmer can look at the type of data used in a program and figure out which data type to use. (Memory constraint may still be a concern for programs written for applications such as a wristwatch.)

Newer programming languages have only five categories of simple data types : integer, real, char, bool, and the enumeration type. The integral data types used in this book are int, bool, and char.

Int DATA TYPE

This section describes the int data type. In fact, discussion also applies to other integral data types.

Integers in C++, as in Mathematics, are numbers such as the following:

-6728, -67, 0, 78, 36782, +763

Note the following two rules from these examples:

Positive integers do not need a + sign in front of them.

No commas are used within an integer. Recall that in C++, commas are used to separate items in a list. So 36, 782, would be interpreted as two integers: 36 and 782.

Bool DATA TYPE

The data type bool has only two values: true and false. Also, true and false are called the logical (Boolean) values. The central purpose of this data type is to manipulate logical (Boolean) expressions. Logical(Boolean) expressions will be formally defined and discussed later in detail in Chapter 3. In C++, bool, true, and false are reserved words.

Char DATA TYPE

The data type char is the smaller integral data types. In addition to dealing with small numbers (-128 to 127), the char data type is used to represent characters letters, digit, and special symbols. Thus, the char data type can represent every key on your keyboards. When using the char data type, you enclose each character represented within single quotation marks. Examples of values belonging to the char data type include the following.

‘A’, ‘a’, ‘0’, ‘*’, ‘+’, ‘$’, ‘ ’

Note that a blank space is a character and is written as ‘ ‘, with a space between the single quotation marks.

The data type char allows only one symbol to be placed between the single quotation marks. Thus, the value ‘abc’ is not of the type char. Furthermore, even though ‘!=’ and similar special symbols are considered to be one symbol, they are not regarded as possible values of the char data type. All the individual symbols located on the keyboard that are printable may be considered as possible values of the char data types.

Several different character data sets are currently in use. The most common are the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) and Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC). The ASCII character set has 128 values. The EBCDIC character set has 256 values and was created by IBM. Both character sets are described in Appendix C.

Each of the 128 values of the ASCII character set represents a different character. For example, the value 65 represents ‘A’. and the value 43 represents ‘+’. Thus, each character has a predefined ordering, which is called a collating sequence, in the set. The collating sequence is used when you compare characters. For example, the value representing ‘B’ is 66, so ‘A’ is smaller than ‘B’. Similarly, ‘+’is smaller than ‘A’ because 43 is smaller than 65.

The 14th character in the ASCII character set is the ASCII character set is called the newline character and is represented as ‘/n’. (Note that the position of the newline character in the ASCII character set is 13 because the position of the first character is 0.). Even though the newline character is a combination of two characters, it is treated as one character. Similarly, the horizontal tab character is represented in C++ as ‘/t’ and the null character is represented as ‘/0’ (a backlash followed by zero). Furthermore, the first 32 characters in the ASCII character set are nonprintable.

Notetaking step

Data type, Simple data type, Structured data type, Pointers, Integral, Floating-point, Enumeration type, int, bool, char

C ++ program:

is to manipulate data

categorizes data into different types and certain operations can be performed on particular types of data

has built-in checks to guard against errors

Data type

a set of values together with a set of operations

3 types: simple data type, structured data type and pointers

Simple data type

The main data type in C++

3 types: Integral, Floating-point and Enumeration type

Integral data type

9 categories :char, short, int, long, bool, unsigned char, unsigned short, unsigned int, and unsigned long

Each of it has different set of values

It can be use depends on the size of our program we need to do

5 categories in new programming: integer, real, char, bool, and the enumeration type

Only 3 categories we learn: int, bool, and char

Int data type

Is a number including positive and negative

Positive integers do not need a + sign in front of them

No commas are used within an integer

Bool data type

Have only true or false

Bool, true and false are reserve words

Char data type

Smaller integral data types

Used to represent characters letters, digit, special symbols or every key on keyboards.

Enclose each character represented within single quotation marks

One symbol between single quotation marks

Several different character data sets are currently in use

The most common are the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) and Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)

Review

What is C++ program?

What is data type?

How many type of data type?

Name all the categories in simple data type.

What is int data type?

What is char data type?

What is bool data type?

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