The History About Teaching Strategies

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

According to Stern (1983) the term strategies can be defined as a new term for methods which is, in a way, a reflection of a pedagogy which has moved away from fixed methods. It is important to view teaching procedures as flexible set of concepts which can employ any effective lesson in order to make the teaching of the language successful. Teaching strategies are often based on relationship of the theories of learning processes and instructional procedures.

They are principles which determine the types of methods or techniques use by language teachers. Johnson (1989) agrees with this statement by stating that Experiential- analytic Dimension, implicit-explicit dimension and intralingual - cross lingual dimension are different types of strategies that have been developed over the past hundred years. However, the main focus here is the latter technique mentioned before as it relates directly to the thesis.

According to this author, the intralingual-crosslingual strategy is based on the role of L1 (mother tongue) in L2 teaching. He furthered explained that "the intralingual strategy reflects the characteristic of the Direct method, the exclusion of the native language, while the crosslingual strategy identifies the characteristic of the traditional or grammar translation method, namely to learn the new language through the medium of the language of origin (216).

Victoria Jo examines these two approaches in more understandable terms in her article " Effects of instructional strategies on second language acquisition Processes". She explained that

In the crosslingual strategy, L1 is present and actively used while in the intralingual approach it is completely absent. even though the intralingual approach to L2 teaching was adopted by the majority of L2 teachers during the past forty or so years, they have always used some elements of reference to the L1 keeping the emphasis on the intralingual strategy" (pg number needed).

Now Educators have realised the importance of L1 in the classroom. According to an interview conducted with Dr. Ian Craig, he stated that such "activities as translation from L2 to the mother tongue involving class discussion develops a better understanding of the elements of the target language".

On a theoretical level, a L2 is built on the existing knowledge of L1 which is constantly used by learners as a reference for understanding and for clarification. If this is the case, both of the two approaches intralingual and crosslingual,can be used in order to facilitate the learning process. The article suggests that in the beginning, the comparison between the L1 and L2 the explanations of L2 in L1 can be very useful. For example, the use of the mother’s language grammar can facilitate the understanding of grammatical rules in the target language. As the learner progresses, the connections between the L1 and L2 should be broken and the instructional periods in L2 should be longer. The use of the crosslingual strategy to teach L2 is one of the ways of looking at the foreign language instruction. This however, does not mean that the intralingual approach is not suitable for beginners in L2. Immersion classrooms are one of those examples where L2 is taught solely by using intralingual strategies.

The importance of a decision about the intralingual or crosslingual strategies has a bearing on the consideration of objectives and content given to a language course. If the main goal of the program is defined as the ability to master conversational skills, then the intralingual strategy seems to be the one that should be predominant. However, if the goal of the programm is to develop understanding skills, then one would likely utilize the crosslingual strategy.

Despite the general acceptance that language teaching should be done mostly by using the intralingual approach, very few studies analyze the effects of one or the other strategy of language acquisition. According to Johnson (1989) "there have been a few studies and observations conducted in the area of the crosslingual technique of teaching the L2, and there is a clear indication that the intralingual strategy is more effective in the attainment of proficiency in the target language". However, in the last decades, the mentioned approaches have hardly been discussed. Most language teachers do not consider the crosslingual strategies as an option in teaching approaches.

The teacher’s role and the activities in the classroom are mainly defined according to the above mentioned strategies and teaching strategies are developed depending on a particular view of the nature and goals of the target language acquisition. A significant number of factors contribute to the constant changing of the teaching/learning process and provide support for a successful language program.

Another effective language teaching strategy is Situational Role Play. According to Hadley (1993) she stated that "in role play, a situation is presented to a small group of students who may prepare their parts, if necessary and them act them out for the rest of the class" (260). For instance, view the following example:

"Your family and another family have gone on vacation together and rented a cottage. As might be expected, your friendship has been subjected to somewhat of a strain after two weeks of togetherness. At last it is over. Complain to and about each other: i.e., eating habits, housework, children etc "(p260).

This kind of role-play that Hadley (1993) is described is very different from the traditional classroom dialogues which are often removed from the student’s reality, making this exercise irrelevant. In Hadley’s role play exercise, the learners were deeply involved in conflict situation and subsequently felt the urge to express themselves. The language practised through role-play was easily transferable to real-life situations. During this exercise, L2 is kept apart from L1, which would categorize this approach, according to the Johnson’s definition.

The list of successful strategies in teaching L2 is growing everyday as teachers find other ways to make language instruction more effective. The teacher’s role in the classroom largely depends on the predominant approach to L2 teaching chosen by the teacher. The next section analyses those roles which are assumed by the teacher according to the methods and approaches used during the instructional practices.

TEACHER’S ROLE REFLECTING TRADITIONAL AND MODERN METHOD

In the language classroom, the teacher applies theories concerning the nature of language and language learning which lead to different instructional methods. Those methods, in turn, influence and change the teacher’s role in the classroom. The two methods that would be discuss are the communicative and Grammar aspect.

In the communicative classroom, the emphasis is on conveying the message without concentrating too much on the mechanics of the language. That is to say that it is much more student-centered. According to Hadley (1993), the teacher’s main role is to "help learning to happen," which includes " involving" students in what is going on "by enabling them to work at their own pace, by not giving long explanations, by encouraging them to participate and interact in class etc. ( find a source). ( a source needed) adds that the language student is best motivated by practice in which he senses the language is truly communicative, that is appropriate to its contect, that his teacher’skills are moving forward to a fuller

Broughton adds that "the language

student is best motivated by practice in which he senses the language is truly

communicative, that it is appropriate to its context, that his teacher’s skills are moving

him forward to a fuller competence in a foreign language" (Broughton 47). Briefly put,

the students are the most active element in this process. The teacher is here not to

explain but to encourage and help students to explore, try out, make learning interesting,

etc.

Though being essential, the aim of learning a foreign language according to modern

methodology is still discussed, and there is a variety of possible aims. In his book

Learning Teaching, Jim Scrivener claims, that nowadays a great emphasis is put

on "communication of meaning" (Scrivener 31). Jack C. Richards also highlights

the communicative competence which is, as he defines it, "being able to use

the language for meaningful communication" (Richards 4). Thus many professionals

refer to this methodology as the Communicative Language approach. Another group

of authors headed by Broughton propose a different idea. They point out that foreign

languages are taught "not simply for the learner to be able to write to a foreign pen

friend" but to broaden his or her horizons by introducing "certain ways of thinking

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about time, space and quantity [and] attitudes towards" issues we have to face in every

day life (Broughton 9,10). Briefly put, some people learn a foreign language most

importantly to be able to communicate with foreign people and other people learn

a foreign language above all to see the world from a different point of view, to discover

new approaches to life or to find out about other cultures.

Since modern methodology is aiming for something different, also the way to achieve

the goal has changed. As pointed out by Jack C. Richards, "attention shifted to

the knowledge and skills needed to use grammar and other aspects of language

appropriately for different communicative purposes such as making requests, giving

advice, making suggestions, describing wishes and needs and so on" (Richards 8).

Teachers’ methods, courses, and books had to be adjusted to new needs of the learners

to fulfil their expectations. Instead of grammatical competence, communicative

competence became the priority. Ronald V. White articulates three principles

of modern methodology: firstly, "the primacy of speech"; secondly, an emphasis on

"the centrality of connected text as the heart of teaching-learning process"; and thirdly,

an "absolute priority of an oral methodology in the classroom" (White 11). Instead of

memorizing grammatical rules and isolated vocabulary, modern methodology prefers

to present contextualized language and to develop skills.

Let us now focus on one important part of modern teaching – teaching skills. The main

skills are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. They can be classified into two

groups: receptive (listening and reading) and productive (speaking and writing). These

skills consist of sub-skills; for example, reading includes skimming (reading for gist),

scanning (reading for specific information), intensive reading, and extensive reading.

While listening, students can listen for gist, or for specific information: for some details,

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like numbers, addresses, directions etc. In real life we do not normally listen for every

word spoken. Therefore, as many professionals today agree, the task should be realistic

too.

The tasks should improve skills, not test memory. According to Jim Scrivener, with

receptive skills it is always better to assign one task, let the students accomplish it, have

feedback, and then assign another task, let the students read or listen to the text again,

have feedback, etc. Scrivener also points out that the tasks should be graded from

the easiest to the most difficult, or, in other words, from the most general to the most

detailed, and the students must know what the assignments are before the listening or

reading itself is done. If the students do not manage to accomplish the task, the teacher

should play the listening again or give them more time for reading (Scrivener 170-173).

In the methodology course at Masaryk University the students are advised to let

the students compare their answers in pairs, to get a feeling of security, and only then

check the answers as a group (Zemenova). Students can become discouraged if the

teacher expects them to undertake tasks which are too demanding, and tasks which are

too difficult can be those not aiming where the teacher actually wants. Therefore it is

vital to think and plan carefully before the lesson, so that the activity is useful.

Concerning productive skills, writing and speaking, there are some important issues to

mention too. While students practice production skills, a teacher using modern

methodology is aware of a contradiction between accuracy and fluency. According to

Jack C. Richards, "fluency is natural language use occurring when a speaker engages in

a meaningful interaction and maintains comprehensible and ongoing communication

despite limitations on his or her communicative competence" (Richards 13).

At Masaryk University, the opinion was presented that students should be encouraged to

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speak the language, though with errors, to get the meaning through (Zemenova). As

stated by Richards, modern methodology tries to keep a balance between the fluency

and accuracy practice (Richards 14). There is another aspect important in speaking

activities. This vital aspect is context and purpose. This is supported by the opinion

expressed by Jill and Charles Hadfield who claim, that activities which mirror real life

situations and which have a goal, for example finding a rule, are "more interesting and

motivating for the learners (Hadfield 4). We can recapitulate the above mentioned ideas

by stating that skills should be taught in a context which is close to real life situations in

which students might well find themselves, the practice should be involving and the

activities should be well aimed and executed. This approach helps learners to be

motivated and interested in the subject matter.

Teaching grammar in a modern way is an essential part too. Unlike the traditional

method, however, the presentation of new grammar also involves students very much.

Students of the methodology courses at Masaryk University are advised to remember

and observe four conditions of a good grammar presentation which are: the creation of

a safe atmosphere, the feeling among the students that tasks are achievable, that

the students show understanding, and that the students actively listen to, speak, read and

write the new language (advisably in this order). As it is emphasized in these courses,

the meaning should be taught before the form (Zemenova). Jim Scrivener also makes

a good point by stating "Keep it short" (Scrivener 267). Keeping this rule in mind when

teaching is essential, since long explanations often become confusing and boring.

Scrivener also emphasizes, that "the monologue may provide useful exposure to one

way of using language, but it isn’t sufficient to justify regular lessons of this kind"

(Scrivener 16). This point highlights the need for the students’ participation and

interaction. Some ways to involve students in the grammar presentation are elicitation

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and personalization. These two methods appear to be very useful tools. Students

always seem to be interested in their teacher’s personal affairs, friends, etc. In fact,

situations that the teacher presents as personal do not always have to be true. Elicitation

meanwhile invites students to be active, to take part in the lesson, to present their

knowledge and ideas.

Since most of the interaction is going on in English, modern methodologists recommend

checking understanding throughout the grammar presentation. As suggested in

the methodology course at Masaryk University, the teacher can carry out this essential

procedure by using timelines, examples, (if suitable) visual aids, or by asking concept

questions. Concept questions highlight the meaning of a target language item and are

simple to understand and to answer (usually ‘yes’ or ‘no’, possibly ‘we do not know’).

However, very often they are not easy to make up. They are asked in the target

language, though they must not contain the structure or word being taught. The

presentation should be followed up by appropriate practice which is usually controlled,

guided and free respectively (Zemenova). These suggestions agree with Jim

Scrivener’s statement that the "ability to use language seems to be more of a skill you

learn by trying to do it [...] than an amount of a data that you learn and then try

to apply" (Scrivener 19). It appears that encouraging students to ‘play’ with the target

language is very effective in helping them learn to speak it.

Modern methodology includes a number of methods. One of the effective methods for

presenting new language is so called ‘guided discovery.’ Scrivener defines it this way:

the teacher is "leading people to discover things that they didn’t know they knew via

a process of structured questions" (Scrivener 268). The teacher can also introduce

a situation, a context, and elicit the language from the students. A suitable reading or

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listening can be used as a source of the new language. As demonstrated at Masaryk

University, yet another valuable method is Test-Teach-Test, in which the students test

themselves, or in other words discover what they already know, revise or learn

something new and then practice the new language (Zemenova). These methods seem

to be interesting, involving, efficient and probably highly successful.

Vocabulary or lexis is a very important part of learning a language. However, what

does teaching a word involve? What should a learner know about a word to be able

to say "I know this word"? In a guided discussion in the methodology training

at Masaryk University the students and teachers agreed that the important issues are its

meaning(s), its pronunciation (both individually and in a sentence), its spelling, its

various forms (tenses, plural, etc.), its uses (position in a sentence), its connotations, and

its collocations (among others). All of them do not have to be taught in one lesson,

of course (Zemenova).

We will now consider the modern ways of teaching lexis. One has probably met many

ways to teach or revise vocabulary. As suggested by Jim Scrivener, the most popular or

the most common methods in modern teaching are:

_ Match the words with the pictures.

_ Check the meaning of these words in the dictionary.

_ Match the words with the definitions.

_ Brainstorm words on a set topic (i.e. collect as many as you can).

_ Divide these words into two groups (e.g. food words and hobby words).

_ Label the items in a picture with the right names.

_ Complete gapped sentences with words from a list.

_ Discuss a topic (that will feature in the text).

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_ Say which words (from a list) you expect to be in a text about... (Scrivener 231).

Including these methods, the training at Masaryk University offers other ideas too:

_ miming, drawing or showing a flashcard to indicate the meaning of a word.

_ using timelines or percentage (in comparison with some similar words).

_ eliciting some words for a short preferably funny or personal (possibly

repetitive) dialogue or story.

_ letting the students get the meaning from the context.

_ using synonyms and opposites.

_ crosswords, riddles.

_ for some difficult words, such as abstract items or verbs, translation is useful

too; however, it is preferable to elicit the translation from the students

(Zemenova).

These lists definitely do not include all the methods a teacher can use. However, these

methods can be used in a variety of activities, such as pre-teaching, listening for lexis,

reading for lexis, using a dictionary, etc

Pre-teaching lexis can help students to recall items they have met before as well as learn

new words. Jim Scrivener points out that "the main aim is to help ensure that

the following activity will work (because there will be fewer stumbling blocks

of unknown lexical items)." Scrivener adds that pre-teaching can be used successfully

to practice some words "useful in [their] own right" (Scrivener 230-233).

In classrooms, pre-teaching seems to be helpful and can be very exciting and involving.

Introducing and establishing the meaning of new item of lexis is, nevertheless, not

enough. Scrivener claims that learners need to "meet new lexical items and understand

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their meaning(s), the ways they are used and the other lexical items they often come

together with," practice using the new vocabulary, remember them and finally "recall

and use the lexical items appropriately" (Scrivener 228). This can be done

in a vocabulary lesson. The vocabulary lesson is a lesson with the main aim of teaching

and practising vocabulary, not grammar or skills. As stated in the book Teaching

English as a foreign Language: "Language item which is not contextualised is more

difficult to remember and to use" (Broughton 41-43). We can see that in a vocabulary

lesson it is important to keep new words in context. This aim can be achieved

by observing six stages of such a lesson, suggested by Jim Scrivener, which are "1 Preteach

lexis [...], 2 Written practice of lexis [...], 3 Oral practice [...], 4 Reading to find

specific information [...], 5 Further lexis work [...], 6 Communicative activity [...]"

(Scrivener 233-4). These stages correspond to the stages presented to students during

the methodology course at Masaryk University and they have proved successful

in many lessons. From a certain point a view they also agree with the grammar lesson

stages which are: presentation (first meaning, then oral form, and finally written form)

and practice (controlled, guided and free respectively) as suggested by the teachers

at Masaryk University (Zemenova). This procedure is also in accordance with Jim

Scrivener’s above mentioned statement that "ability to use language seems to be more

of a skill you learn by trying to do it [...] than an amount of a data that you learn and

then try to apply" (Scrivener 19). Many people agree that with remembering lexis,

using is the best method.

To sum up the modern methodology principles, we can highlight the student-centred

interaction which is connected to the involvement of the students in everything going on

during the lesson. This shifts the teacher’s role to not causing the learning, but helping

learning to happen. The teacher’s task is to choose activities suitable for their learners,

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to guide them in the lessons and to encourage them to experiment with the language.

The modern methodology comprises a rich variety of methods which should have some

common features: activities involving students and close to the real-life situations. To

be effective, the methods follow after each other in a suitable order, and there should be

a balance of teaching focused on different aspects of the language

Hadley (1993) offers many activities for the communicative approach to language teaching. however, she indicate that according to many observations in the L2 teaching situations, most teachers who advocate the communicative approach are in fact doing very little in this area. the reason for such a phenomenon is that the teacher’s role in the communicative classroom is completely different from a traditional role and must be well thought out and prepared.

For instance, according to the author, the teacher must concentrate on trust building activites and risk taking exercises. the self confidence adn the motivation of the learner are essential for a successful communicative classroom. in order to achieve that, the teacher must provide a non-threatening reassuring atmosphere where students could feel free ti take risk in an attempt to express themselves in the new language.

The teacher role is described by ( need a source

in the communicative language teaching approach, the teacher needs to make sure that all students are involved in meaningful communicative activities. at the same time, the teacher needs to organize materials and must be prepared to assume the role of a facilitor.

the communicative language approach to language teaching requires the teacher to have an appropriate knowledge of the subject adn the target language. it is also important for the teacher to feel confident and to allow students to act spontaneously in order to create authentic language situtaitons. such an approach might be threatening to sme teachers’ authority if the feel the do not have control of the classroom.

Other methods of L2 teaching, involves: Direct Method, Audioligualsim,The Grammar translation Method and Active Teaching. For example

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