Scale Of Generality Or Difficulty

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

Chapter 2

Theoretical Framework

In this stage of the project, the information regarding the texts analysis, such as text style, text function or type of translation will be explained through this entire chapter. Also, there will be mention with wide details the information about some translation techniques, as well as explanations regarding research questions, and methods to develop a glossary and its relevance for the translator and for the translation process.

This chapter theory great’s assistance is manly focus on mentioning important topics that helped this project to achieve its primary objective and purpose.

Text analysis

Text analysis can be defined as a mean that helps the translator as a guide to guarantee cohesion between the ideas expressed in sentences of any document. The translator must need to take into account several sources to ensure the cohesion of ideas such as theme and rheme, anaphoric references, Anaphoric and cataphoric reference, enumerations, opposition or dialectic, redundancy, conjunctions, initial negatives and punctuation.

First there is the theme and rheme that has the text which must be identify by the translator when is starting to read a text. Newmark (1982) "theme states the subject of discourse, which is normally referred to in, or logically consequential upon, the previous utterance (sentence or paragraph). Rheme is the fresh element, the lexical predicate, which offers information about theme" (p. 177).

This helps to understand the difference in which the focus of each cohesive source on the text to produce a better understanding of the idea when is translated the source text into the target one.

The Anaphoric references detail something priory mentioned, while the cataphoric references bring details of something that will be mention.

Enumerations are means to reproduce the ideas by numerical order, for example, first, second, next, or then.

An essential source to consider when conveying properly a message are oppositions or dialects that the text may have, according to Newmark (1982) opposition or dialectic can be exampled in this way, "from thesis to antithesis, from positive to negative, from static to dynamic, from specific to genetic and possibly back in each case or it may start with the negative to go on the positive" (page 176).

This example that Newmark (1982) provides is helpful because it explains the range of analysis which the translator may need to cover when dealing with oppositions or dialects in texts.

Redundancy should be taken as a grammatical error which most of the source text came with, generating a task for the translator to clear redundant ideas and change them, for a more proper sentence or even a phrase.

Another source that the translator must take into account is redundancy, according to Newmark (1982) redundancy is "in information theory, the function of redundancy is to counteract noise. In a text, redundancy may be taken as bad writing which can be discreetly climinated by the translator" (p. 176)

These are some examples of redundant words:

(Absolutely) necessary: absolutamente necesario

(Actual) facts: hechos reales

(Advance) reservations: reservas por adelantado

Linking words, interpolated clauses and phrases are part of the conjunctions which are essential for the translator when is conveying the message of the source text into the target one.

Other source to take into account is the substitution. The explanation of Ruquaiya Hasan’s (1968), in Newmark (1982), defines substitution as "grammatical and lexical words are used for cohesive purposes to refer to an object or person mentioned in sentence or the previous sentence" (p.178).

Substitution of words or phrases is most of the times a translator decision in which the translator choose if it’s necessary to omit or add information to provide the proper understanding of the source text for the target language readers.

The comparison is important for the translator because they help to achieve of the source text message and translate it into the target language. According to Newmark (1982) all comparisons produce a cohesive effect.

Initial negatives are basically used to indicate a following positive statement which connects an initial negative idea.

Prepositions play an important role in the translator work, because the can change into a positive or negative way the message of the source language text when is translated into the target one.

Newmark (1982) explained them as "A powerful Cohesive Factor (See Prepositions, nos. 124-130)" (p. 178).

The texts analysis required general and a close reading in order to comprehend a text. The general reading is basically to understand the concept and subject of the text and close or specific reading of a text is basically used in texts that have more difficult language terminologies.

Besides the general or close reading that text analysis demands while understanding a text, the translator must need to take into account the intention of the text, the intention of the author and the readership of the text.

Text Styles

The text style is in general is the type of document in which the translator will work on. There are four types of texts, the narrative, description, discussion and dialogue.

Narrative texts emphasized mainly on verbs, verbs plus verb-noun or phrasal and also in sequences of events.

Description texts are characterized by mainly focus on linking verbs, adjectives and adjectival nouns.

Discussion texts are according to Newmark (1988), "a treatment of ideas, with emphasis on abstract nouns (concepts), verbs of though, mental activity (consider, argue, etc), logical arguments and connectives" (page 13).

In general discussion texts deal with several opinions of different people arguing about a specific topic.

The dialogue texts are focus strictly on colloquialisms.

Colloquialisms refer to those specific words used by speakers of a single region.

Stylistic Scales

In this part of the chapter will be explained all the components that the stylistic scale have such as formality, generality or difficulty and tone.

Scale of Formality

The scale of formality is compound by eight categories: Officialese, official, formal, neutral, informal, colloquial, and slang (Newmark, 1988).

Texts that contain an officialese formality in the context are mainly the use for laws already imposed or strictly governmental documents.

Official formality in texts is almost the same as the officialese formality with the deference that official’s has a more informative purpose.

Formal texts are characterized by being used in fields where is require a more complex language for example business or company documents.

On the other hand the is the neutral formality in texts concerns more on persuade the message among the people with a language that is familiar for every person not matters the educational level.

Informal can be taken as similar to neutral, but informal texts are more characterized by contain low level of education

Colloquial can be taken as part of informal, but well known by contains colloquialisms among its context.

Slang also informal but different because is directed only to the specific society that uses that type of language.

Newmark (1988) also mentioned and provides examples of two other stylistic scales; the scale of generality or difficulty, and a scale of emotional tone.

Scale of Generality or Difficulty

The scale of generality or difficulty determines the level of complexity of the documents. Newmark (1988) provides the following list in which this scale is divided on simple, popular, neutral, educated and technical.

Simple complexity in texts is basically texts with low difficulty of terminologies.

In general, popular generality means that the context of a document contains vocabulary of now a day’s life.

Neutral complexity in texts is when there is a balance of difficulty in its context; not too complex or too simple.

A educated level on texts are found on texts that are use for educational lor instructional purposes, most of them are used in universities or schools,

Texts that contain technical vocabulary are more found in documents such as operator manuals of any device.

Scale of Tone

The scale of tone refers to the vocabulary that the document is written, according Newmark (1988) this scale can be divided into intense, warm and factual tone.

The intense tone in texts focuses more on give the message by using intensifiers.

The warm tone in texts provides a message with more gentle vocabulary.

Factual tone can be seem as the combination of both tones, because it aim to convey the message but with a more gentle way of expression.

Text function

The text function is basically what the purpose of the text is, or what intention does the text has. Newmark (1988) explained that there are three main functions of language, the informative, vocative and expressive. These functions are the core of the language.

Texts function is divided into informative, expressive and vocative function.

Informative

In translation, the informative function concerned about any particular topic of knowledge. This function focuses on external situations or facts of a topic, for example, ideas or theories.

The informative function follows a standard format; these are some examples of types of language function, textbooks, newspapers, scientific technical documents.

It is important to mention that there are two aspects that should be emphasized when describing the informative function. First most of informative texts are found in international organizations, multi-nationals, private companies or translation agencies. And second, most of them present lacks of proper grammar structures, resulting a task for the translator to correct them.

Expressive Function

The expressive function reflects the ideas of the speaker, writer and the originator of the utterance to express feelings without the intention of receive a response. Newmark (1988) specify that, for purposes of the translation the expressive texts can be divided in three text-types Serious Imaginative Literature, Authoritative Statements and Autobiography essays and personal correspondence.

The serious imagitivative literature is characterized by texts like lyrical poetry, short stories, novels or plays.

For the authoritative statements Newmark (1988) says "these are texts of any nature which derive their authority from high status or the reliability and linguistic competence of their authors" (p 39). This is more commonly observed in documents of governmental authorities. They are characterized by use a formal and more educated vocabulary in the whole context.

The personal correspondence in particular is expressive when the readers are quite related with the author’s background.

Vocative Function

The vocative texts are specifically directed to the readership, and to persuade a message for them. This functions is particularly, named that why because a message for the readership to react about a specific topic.

For translation purposes, the vocative function format is seen in "notices, instructions, publicity, propaganda, persuasive writing (requests, cases, theses) and possibly popular friction, whose purpose is to sell the book/entertain the reader, as the typical "Vocative text" Newmark (1988) (p. 41).

Type of Translation.(Translation Methods)

Semantic Translation

The semantic translation uses the source language exact meaning and translates this same message taking into account the target language grammatical structure. It is important to mention that all semantic translations main objective are focus on meaning. Although, the naturalness and aesthetic are consider in this method of translation.

To amplify the meaning of this method of translation, Newmark (1982) states that "semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original" (page 39).

The principal objective of the translator every time his is about to use the semantic translation, is the ideas and thoughts of the authors whenever the translator perceive that is proper to use the semantic translation method, to convey the exact message of the original into the target language. Semantic translations mostly are directed to just one reader most of the times are addressed to writer of the source language text. Newmark (1982) point of view is that "a semantic translation is always inferior to its original, since it involves loss of meaning" (page 42).

Communicative Translation

In the communicative translation method the only part of the meaning that is taken into account is the part of the target language message understanding. The communicative translation tries to produce a reaction on the target language reader same as the reaction provided in the original text. This translation method is a subjective procedure, because it aims to achieve a possible effect on the readers.

Newmark (1982), explained that "generally, a communicative translation is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer, more direct, more conventional, conforming to a particular register of language, tending to undertranslate, i.e. to use more generic, hold-all terms in difficult passages" (page 39).

This particularly quote explains better the purpose of the communicative translation, mentioned that it tends to be clearer and simpler than the original version because it aim to clarify even more the message of the source text for the target language reader.

Translation Techniques

The translation techniques are achievements of the translation that helps the translator to produce a natural and accurate translation for the target text readers. According to Delisle (ed., 1999) translation techniques are methods of linguistic transference of the most relevant parts of the source language text that the translator must used to achieve equivalence.

Transposition

Transposition is a type of translation technique that involves a structural change in the grammar when translation the source language into the target one. This procedure does not change the meaning of the source language message at all; transposition just change the way that the message is given by the author of the source language in order to sound more natural for the target language reader.

Transposition is a helpful tool for the translator but is especially directed to help the reader understanding of the message from the source language text.

Transposition is a procedure by which the translator replaces a part of the speech of the source language for completely different target language speech without losing the message of the source language (Vázquez Ayora, 1977).

Examples

Vazques Ayora (1977), brings this examples as a reference:

I merely asked his name = me contenté con preguntarle el nombre

Transposition is a procedure that modifies the grammatical structure of a part of the text without losing the general sense of the source language text (López Guix and Wilkinson (1997).

López Guix and Wilkinson (1997), provide this example to give an idea of this procedure:

After she left = Tras su partida

Both examples basically reflect the difference that transposition produce in the target language grammatical order and still reproducing the same message that the source language meant.

Newmark (1987) describes transposition or shifts as a process that involves the grammatical change when the translator is translating a source language text into a target language one.

Newmark (1982), explain that this procedure has three types of transposition. The first type is changing from singualr to plural. Example:

Furniture = muebles

Newmark (1987) provides more of the first type of transposition:

Applause =aplausos

Advice = consejos

The second type appears when there is not a source language grammatical structure equivalent in the target language. The third type is when the literal translation of a grammatical structure is possible but not natural for the target language culture.

Hurtado (2001) provides an important example of the risk that translation may have because it can produce misinterpretations in the target language text:

To translate into castellan He will soon be back for No tardará en venir instead of Estará de vuelta pronto.

Modulation

This particular technique is tricky because it requires the translator not just to translate but most important it will require perception of the text to be translated. Modulation can originate misinterpretations from the target language readers if the translator is not familiarized with the language when translating the speech of the original document into the target text. Newmark (1982) defines modulation as "a variation through a change of point of view, of perspective and very often of category of thought" page 88).

The technique is basically used to reproduce the same idea from the original text but changing the grammatical components of it, commonly when the literal translation misses the linguistic level of a text.

The following example is provided by Vázquez Ayora (1977) to describe this process:

That’s the answer =>Esa es la solución

In this example is noticeable that the idea is remains even if the grammatical structure is completely different from the original text.

As an example to have an idea of what this procedure is about, Newmark (1987) provides:

Don’t delay = Date prisa

No te quepa duda =Get this straight

No tiene nada de tonto = He’s extremely intelligent

Modulation is compound by two parts, the Bound modulation and the Free Modulation.

The bound modulation is used when the source language active form is transfer to the passive form of the target language. Free modulation refers the act of related the meaning in the source language into the target one. (Newmark in Machali, 2000: 691).

Modulation is very complex, according to most translation experts, is the one that requires more knowledge of the grammatical mechanics both source and target language.

Through this process the translator main objective is to change the way the message is given without changing the contextual meaning in order to produce the same effect that the source language pretends into the target language.

Omissions and Insertions

The omission method works particularly the translator to avoid redundancy and repetition of ideas that can be express in a single and simple form when are translated into the target language.

Omission, instead of been a procedure that change or modify the source language authors text or idea, it tries to provides an easy to understand and natural speech for the target language readers that explains the same message of the source language text. Vázquez Ayora (1977) mention that this procedures as well as been a translation procedures they both also have operative technical procedures functions.

Vázquez Ayora (1977) explain this term with this example

The committee has failed to act by La comisión no actuó.

This example clearly shows the fact that when the translator is about to use the omission procedure, a literal translation of the context is not a proper technique. This procedure uses the most cultural and natural phrases or words to provide a better understanding in the target reader of the source text.

The amplification procedure aim to reinforce the idea of the source text when is translated into the target language text, mostly because of the lack of an equivalence to express the word or idea of the source text into the target language text. In the other hand, amplification is a procedure of translation, which is basically the contrary of omission. This procedure is also named expansion.

Deslie (1999), provide the following examples to explain this procedure:

Vivificante > life-giving

Yorkshire > condado de Yorkshire

According to Newmark (1988) amplification is "a not uncommon shift, often neglected, is the source language adjective, English target language adverb plus past participle, or present participle plus objective" (page 90).

Amplification is a procedure by which the translator must increase the number of words to defined better what the source text may refers to.

Besides been that different between the, both procedures might use in texts with poor grammatical or linguistical content which force the translator to produce a significant change of style and lexicon on the text in order to be fully comprehensible for the target language readers; no matters if its omitting or expanding the text.

Explicitation

This process is aim to express with a wider vocabulary the ideas of the source language in order to provide a better understanding of the text in the target language reader just alike the amplification procedure. This means that sometimes the implicit terms of a language are understandable for one language but still missing meaning in other language, forcing the translator to bring the implicit to the explicit to achieve a proper translation of the source text.

Deslie (1999), explain this theory with this example:

To help resolve the basic questions of delegation > Para ayudar a resolver el problema fundamental de la delegación de poderes

This example provided by Deslie (1999), shows the details that the translator must modify and clarify from the source text when is translating.

Literal Translation

This procedure can be the first method which the translator is exposed to. Although is not as simply as it seem, literal translation requires a proper knowledge from both source and target languages because in fact there are few speeches that can be literally translated, especially when is a translation of english into Spanish or the other way around.

Literal translation is the easiest procedure of translation, but it only can function whenever the two languages have the same equivalent words or phrases which is quite rare because mostly all languages have differences in lexicon and the grammatical or linguistic style and order (Vachon-Spilka 1968).

López Guix y Wilkinson (1997) describes literal translation as a word for word transition from a language into other taking into account the linguistic and grammatical structures of the target language

Literal translation method requires a unity of all aspects between both languages. This means that the target language most follows the strictly grammatical order from the source language text.

False Cognates

There are many words in the romantic languages that are pretty much similar in appearance and writing to some English words; nevertheless not all of those words have same meaning, actually, most of them refers to a completely other meaning. These words are called false cognates.

Most the time people, especially those people who are starting to become familiar with a new language, confused these words, creating a misinterpretation of a message or an idea.

Examples:

Nudo: knot, node, joint.

Nude: desnudo

Pie = foot.

Pie = pastel

Advertencia = warning, piece of advice, reminder, or preface.

Advertisement = un anuncio.

Agonía = death throes, dying moments.

Agony = terrible physical or mental pain

Apologia= defense or a eulogy.

Apology = una disculpa or excusa

Arena = means sand.

Arena = anfiteatro, redondel, plaza

Asistir = means to attend.

Assist = translates as ayudar.

Bizarro = valient, gallant, brave, or generous.

Bizarre = means extraño or raro.

Blindar = means to armor-plate or to shield

Blind = ciego

Campo = means country (side), field, or farm.

Camp= refers to un campamento.

Carpeta = folder, file, portfolio, briefcase, or table cloth.

Carpet = is una alfombra or una moqueta.

Colorado= means red or reddish.

Colored = de color

Damnificado = victim, from the verb damnificar - to injure, harm, damage.

Damned means = condenado or maldito.

Delito= refers to a crime, offence, or misdeed.

Delight = el placer, el deleite, el encanto, or la delicia.

Desgracia = means misfortune, mishap, accident, setback, or bad luck.

Disgrace = refers to la deshonra or ignominia

Echar = has numerous meanings, including to throw, to put, to pour, to give, to cut, and to push.

Echo= means resonar, repetir, or hacer eco.

Effective = eficaz

Efectivo means real or actual, dinero

Fútbol = refers to soccer (in American English).

Football = el fútbol americano.

Excitar = means to excite sexually.

Excite = when talking about something you're looking forward to is entusiasmar or provocar.

Fastidioso = means annoying or boring.

Fastidious = means escrupuloso

Grabar= is to engrave, record, or impress.

Grab= means asir, coger, or arrebatar.

Gracioso means funny or cute.

Gracious = gentil, cortés, or refinado.

Idioma refers to a language.

Idiom = idiotosmo, modismo, or lenguaje

Labor can mean any kind of work: paid work, chores, needlework, etc.

Labor refers to trabajo

Lectura refers to the act of reading or reading material.

Lecture = una conferencia, una explicación, or un sermoneo

Lujuria = lust, lewdness, excess.

Luxury = el lujo

Mama refers to a breast.

Mama = mamá

Molestar means to annoy or bother.

Molest = acosar sexualmente.

Glossaries

In this stage of the chapter, will to be explanatory arguments of the importance for the translator to develop a glossary with all the content and definition of the most difficult terminology of any text. To develop a glossary is not complicated, nevertheless it requires to be very organized and a deeply investigation in order to provide the real message of the subject or terminology.

Relevance for the Translator

Basically, glossaries for translation purposes, explain the most specific vocabulary of the respective field or subject matter. Glossaries will not just help the translator to understand the meaning of the vocabulary less common or complicated of the text, but it will help the target language readers and users of the document.

A glossary has essential benefits for the translator and the reader, but it also produces a positive reaction over the translation itself. Acclaro (2013), says as another benefit of the use of glossaries in is that"A glossary (from the Greek glossa, meaning obsolete or foreign word), ensures a consistent style and voice, an accurate rendering of the original text and a level of translation quality that is even throughout" (third paragraph, Acclaro 2010).

Relevance for the translation Process

Glossaries are not just developing for the use of the reader to understand difficult terminology, but they also provide assistance to the translator to have a guide of the complex and unique terminology of a specific field. Besides the terminology it facilitates the translator the translation process when need to look up for phrases or terms faster and understand thoroughly the information of the text.

For example, in medical texts, glossaries will be very useful to achieve a final translation text because of the different and diverse terms of medical equipment, parts or supplies, medication definitions or any other medical subject that mostly will have special terminology that will varies completely when translating into a target language.

How to Create a Glossary

Glossaries are not too hard to develop; nevertheless they require lots of concentration and order. Glossaries are just a list full with the most difficult terminology, so its important for the translator to highlight those words when is doing the first reading of the document that is going to be translated. RENNERT (2007) explains this with the following quote ,"Glossaries can also serve as the foundation for translation memory databases. The use of translation memory software can lead to improved linguistic consistency and lower translation costs. Creating glossaries requires a little effort, but it can make a big difference in the quality and consistency of the finished translation. If you update glossaries on an incremental basis, maintaining them will seem painless." (Para: 2)

Relationship between the theories and the research question.

In this section the theory and research questions are the core to develop this project. The relation between them will guide and assist the researcher to find in a correct form, the answers of questions of this specific topic.

The analysis and identification of several translation methods will help Meditek with the translation of the texts Manual Del Operador: Mesa de Operaciones Ambulatoria ASC 2000 and the Operator Manual: Amsco Sonic Energy Console

To analyze both texts will help to find procedures and approaches required to to achieve a natural and acquired translations.to evaluate the oblique translation techniques (Transposition, Modulation, and Literal Translation), will help no just the texts to be more natural and accurate, but it also provides assistance to the translator in identifying problems or difficulties when is translating into the text.

There is a glossary, which is specially developed to bring help to the translator and the reader to understand difficult terminologies. Also this glossary can be take into account as a reference for similar medical texts of Mediek in the case that its required to translate more documents f this field.