Reporting Test Results Band Descriptors

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02 Nov 2017

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E-mail communication has become widespread in commendation between educational, administrative and business institutions. ESP learners will almost certainly need to become familiar with the conventions of wring e-mail message (see but this is a different question from that of how e-mail can be used in ESP teaching. We have read of e-mail being used for commenting on students' writing and also for student-to-student peer commenting. A writing course for business people was launched in Brazil in 1998 (CEPRIL) Dudely-Evans&St John (1998:206).

2.9.3 Reporting Test Results: Band Descriptors

In public ESP examinations in Britain, the practice of reporting results as a percentage (such as 60 per cent), a letter grade (such as B), or just as pass/fail has largely been replaced by band descriptors. B- or 60 per cent can only tell us that the result is better than C+ and worse than 80 per cent. To understand test results, users need to know what specific criteria they refer to – and that is what the band descriptors state( Dudely-Evans &St John , 1998:217f ).

There are several types of marking schemes adapted for marking writing or spoken interaction and there are two kinds of descriptors, holistic and (multi-trait) analytic (See Weir, 1990; Hamp-Lyons,1991). The first which is not of this study concern, is for experienced users, holistic descriptors are quicker and reliable; they use global impression and provide an overall perspective, while the other is diagnostic purposes and initial reliability, analytic descriptors are usually recommended; these break each feature down. This model namely, Weir (1990) is implemented in this study as illustrated in Table No.(1) below.

2.9.3.1 Weir's(1990)Model

Table ( No. 1):

Analytic Descriptors for Marking Writing (Weir, 1990)

Relevance and adequacy of content

The answer bears almost no relation to the task set. Totally inadequate answer.

Answer of limited relevance to the task set. Possibly major gaps in treatment of topic and /or pointless repetition.

For the most part answers the tasks set. Though there may be some gaps or redundant information.

Relevant and adequate answer to the task set.

Compositional Organization

No apparent organization of content.

Very little organization of content. Underlying structure not sufficiently apparent.

Some organizational skills in evidence, but not adequately controlled.

Overall shape and internal pattern clear. Organizational skills adequately controlled.

Cohesion

Cohesion almost totally absent. Writing so fragmentary that comprehension of the intended communication is virtually impossible.

Unsatisfactory cohesion may cause difficulty in comprehension of most of the intended communication.

For the most part satisfactory cohesion through occasional deficiencies may mean that certain parts of the communication are not always effectives.

Satisfactory use of cohesion resulting in effective communication.

Adequacy of Vocabulary for Purpose.

Vocabulary inadequate even for the most basic parts of the intended communication.

Frequent inadequacies in vocabulary for the task. Perhaps frequent lexical inappropriacies and/or repetition

Some inadequacies in vocabulary for the task. Perhaps some lexical inappropriacies and/or circumlocution.

Almost no inadequacies in vocabulary for the task. Only rare inappropriacies and/or circumlocution.

Grammar

Almost all grammatical patterns inaccurate.

Frequent grammatical inaccuracies.

Some grammatical inaccuracies.

Almost no grammatical inaccuracies.

Mechanical Accuracy I (punctuation)

Ignorance of conventions of punctuation.

Low standard of accuracy in punctuation.

Some inaccuracies in punctuation.

Almost in inaccuracies in punctuation.

Mechanical Accuracy II (spelling).

Almost all spelling inaccurate.

Low standard of accuracy in spelling.

Some inaccuracies in spelling.

Almost no inaccuracies in spelling.

The benefits of band descriptors are real information for students. Greater fairness and standardization - especially in writing and speaking -and , in the long run, time-saving. When markers are familiar with descriptors they can mark more accurately and more quickly.

2.10 Needs Analysis

Needs analysis as Dudely-Evans&St John(1998:122)assert, is neither unique to language teaching-needs assessment, for example, is the basis of training programmes and aid-development programmes – nor , within language training, is it unique to LSP and thus to ESP. However, needs analysis is the corner stone of ESP and leads to a very focused course.

In his article (Orr,2001) states that whether creating a new university course or designing a workplace training program, the first step in ESP is to identify the specific needs of the learner. This is generally

done by gathering information from learners and informed sources, via

questionnaires and interviews, in order to generate a list of target tasks that the given learners will be expected to carry out. This is followed with analyses of voice or video recordings, and/or various forms of text and documentation to determine what kind of spoken or written English is required to complete the target tasks well. This preliminary ESP research will identify a corpus of needful vocabulary, a set of spoken scripts or written texts along with useful information about their construction and usage, and a list of skills and relevant nonlinguistic information that learners must master in order to successfully accomplish the specific academic or workplace purposes for which they seek specialized training.

Beyond identifying target tasks and the English required to accomplish them, one additional element of needs analysis is learner assessment.

Teachers or trainers setting out nowadays to determine learners' needs begin from a different and broader base. Before they approach clients and students they can trawl the literature for previous needs analysis, available materials, and research findings. Not only are they able to do so but we believe that they must. The information obtained from clients and students will only be as good as (a) the questions asked and (b) the analysis of the answers. For example, neither of us have ever worked with police forces or on board ship and we know nothing about how either group operates. If we went straight to them, we would have to ask a great many questions, we would probably not distinguish the relevant from the trivial, and we would probably have as many questions at the end as we began with. (ibid)

Instead, we would do some groundwork which would include checking the literature for relevant articles, looking for ESP teaching material, contacting colleagues and organizations who might have experience of such groups, reading material about the subject or discipline. We would want to be as knowledgeable as possible beforehand because then we would:

know what we did not know – that is, we would know what to ask;

not waste our clients' or students' time;

appear much more professional;

know how we should analyse the data.

A crucial point, whenever data is being collected, is to know beforehand what will happen to the raw data and to the information derived from it. Much time and effort can be wasted in gathering responses that cannot be interpreted or lead to more questions rather than answers. As ESP practitioners we need to know exactly what we are trying to find out and what we do with the answers before we start (Berwick, 1989:62).

2.10.1 The Role of Needs Analysis in Business English

Dudeley-Evans&St John(1998:57) state that need analysis may be more fundamental in business English than in, English for Technology as learners’ need can be much more . Varied and the spectrum of language and skills less predictable . The approach of needs analysis depends on the situation and context . Pilbeam (1979) suggests that needs analysis should be concerned with establishing both a target profile of language skills which sets down the actual activities that the participants have to carry out (Target Situation Analysis ) and a profile of personal ability in which the participants’ proficiency in these activities is evaluate (present situation Analysis).

Such a language audit is particularly relevant to in-company work and helps to decide how many hours of language tuition are needed to bridge the gap, or what should be prioritized where time is limited. Brieger (1997:88-9) suggests needs analysis for Business English will set out to identify the range of general and professional communication skills.

Holden (1993) suggests a three- stage analysis :

1-to tabulates information through which target language needs are identified;

2- to establish an interview or a questionnaire to establish learners' perceptions of communication within their corporate culture ;

3- to conduct questionnaire to establish preferred learning styles.

Other techniques of needs analysis are presented by Reeves and Wright (1996) .

2.11 Error Analysis

Error analysis is a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners make. It consists of a comparison conducted between the errors made in the Target Language (TL) and that TL itself. Pit Corder is the "Father" of Error Analysis (the EA with the "new look"). It was with his article entitled "The Significance of Learner Errors" (1967) that EA took a new turn. Errors used to be "flaws" that needed to be eradicated. Coder ,in his article ,presents a completely different point of view. He contends that those errors are "important in and of themselves." For learners themselves, errors are 'indispensable,' since the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to learn. In 1994, Gass & Selinker defined errors as "red flags" that provide evidence of the learner’s knowledge of the second language. Researchers like Richards,( 1974), Taylor,( 1975) Dulay and Burt, (1974) lay emphasis on errors because they are believed to contain valuable information on the strategies that people use to acquire a language .Errors are to the learning process to the extent that Dulay and Burt (ibid)entitle their paper "You can't learn without goofing".

Van Els., et al (1984:51) assure that interlingual errors are due to linguistic differences between L1 and L2 ,these are known as interference errors .Interference is defined as "Added difficulty in learning a sound , or construction in a second language as a result of differences with the habits of the native language "Lado ( 1964:217).

According to Corder (1974: 19), error analysis has two objectives: one is theoretical the other is applied. The theoretical object serves to "elucidate what and how a learner learns when he studies a second language." And the applied object serves to enable the learner "to learn more efficiently by exploiting our knowledge of his dialect for pedagogical purposes."Moreover, according to Richards and Sampson (1974: 15), "At the level of pragmatic classroom experience, error analysis will continue to provide one means by which the teacher assesses learning and teaching and determines priorities for future effort."

The investigation of errors can be at the same time diagnostic and prognostic. It is diagnostic because it can tell us the learner's state of the language (Corder, 1967) at a given point during the learning process, and prognostic because it can tell course organizers to reorient language learning materials on the basis of the learners' current problems.

Whenever a language is learnt or acquired one is faced with the problem of errors. Errors are an inevitable feature of learning. They are not problems to be overcome or evils to be eradicated. They in fact are part of learning and reveal the strategies that learners use to learn a language. They provide valuable insight into the language learning process. They help the teachers infer how much the students have learnt. They also give an indication as to whether they are ready to learn what the teacher wants to teach them next. Thus a lack of fit between the learner’s needs and the items taught could be avoided.

By analyzing their errors one could build up a picture of the features of language which cause the learning problems. Once their problems are understood in the right perspective remedial measures could be thought of. An important part of the teachers’ job is to undertake a systematic analysis learners’ errors.

Stages of Error Analysis

Error Analysis is carried out in three successive stages. As mentioned by S. Pit Corder (1973). These are (1) Recognition. (2Description. and (3) Explanation. There are a number of problems which one has to face in each of these stages. A thorough understanding of these problems along with possible measures to overcome them is necessary for a proper analysis of the errors.

1. Recognition /identification of Errors

To recognize an error one should first of all know what is meant by the term ‘error’.S.Pit Corder uses the term "Erroneous" to mean those utterances. which are either superficially deviant or inappropriate in terms of the target language grammar. He distinguishes between mistakes. lapses and errors. They correspond to what he calls Pre-systematic, Post-systematic and Systematic errors. van Els (1984;48,49) presents this issue by these two questions:

What it is learned ?

How the learning take place?

These two questions are closely related since what takes place in the learner's head is not open to direct observation. Hypotheses about the learning process are therefore usually inferred from the learner's language product .it is presented as follows :

input à-internal mechanism -à-out put

2. Description of Errors

In this step one tries to show the learners how they have failed to realize the intended message. There are problems. which prevent proper description as the researcher needs an extremely good insight into the learner’s mind. Mc.Donough (1981) remarks that it should not be supposed that all learners take the same route to the same error. "Nor should it be assumed that one learner may not at different times produce. The same reason for different reason ".

But Pit Corder feels that this is not always the case. He suggests that it should be looked for errors that occur repeatedly .In this way only systematic errors are taken into consideration. This is a difficult task because individual learners may be highly inconsistent in their errors. Corder agrees that inconsistency is more characteristic of errors than systematicity. Once the errors are described, properly explanation of errors can begin.

3. Explanation of Errors

Explanation is still largely speculative because of one's limited knowledge of the psychological and neurological process involved in language learning. The same error could be looked at from various points of view. For example. a learner’s mother tongue has only one way of referring to future time while the target language has three ways of referring to the same. Here the learner has problems and commits errors. In this case it is difficult to decide whether the error was caused by mother tongue interference. or because of the confusion of the rules of the target language.

Classification of Errors

The main problem that can be faced in the area of classification is that one error can be classified in a number of ways. The following example dealt with by A.K.Sinha (1977) makes clear some of the problems one has to face while analyzing syntactic errors. The example is as under:

(a) The plane reached Detroit. There it stopped for half an hour.

(b) The plane reached Detroit and stopped there for half an hour.

(c) The plane reached Detroit. There stopped for half an hour.

In (C) according to the structuralist. the sentence is erroneous because the subject is missing. The proper use of it is made in (a). According to a transformationalist a ‘conjoined coreference subject deletion rule’ is used in the wrong place in (c). It has been rightly used in (b).application of a Hindi-knowing speaker of English would say it is the ‘the coreference subject deletion rule’ in Hindi which permits intersentential deletion of a co referential subject.

A number of examples of this type have been cited by many to make the point that differences of opinion exist with regard to classification of errors. But once the choice is made as to which type of classification one wants to employ, one can deal with it efficiently. Whatever the approach may be one thing stands out clear. Learners employ certain strategies to simplify their learning task. This is true whether they are learning their mother tongue or a second language. This fact is clearly seen when one studies their syntactic errors. Hence the study of learners’ errors could help us in two ways. Firstly, it provide a sufficient assessment of the subjects' competence in TL . Secondly it facilitates the way for finding remedial suggestions which meet their needs .

So far the discussion has focused on how Error Analysis helps in gaining a better understanding the level of our study subjects looking at it from a different points of view. It can be seen how various studies which have been carried out with a view to finding out how language is acquired and have changed our attitude and approach towards errors.

2.11.2 Sources of Errors

In 1972, Selinker (in Richards, 1974: 37) illustrate five sources of errors:

Language transfer

Transfer of training

Strategies of second language learning

Strategies of second language communication, and

Overgeneralization of TL linguistic material.

In 1974 Corder (in Allen & Corder: 130) identified three sources

of errors: Language Transfer, Overgeneralization or analogy, &

Methods or Materials used in the Teaching (teaching-induced error).

In the paper titled "The Study of Learner English" which Richards

and Simpson wrote in 1974, they specified seven sources of errors:

Language transfer, to which one third of the deviant sentences from second language learners could be attributed (George, 1971).

Intralingual interference: In 1974, Richards exposed four types and causes for intralingual errors:

overgeneralization (Richards ,1974:174): it is associated with redundancy reduction. It covers instances where the learner creates a deviant structure on the basis of his experience of other structures in the target language. It may be the result of the learner reducing his linguistic burden.

ignorance of rule restrictions: i.e. applying rules to contexts to which they do not apply.

incomplete application of rules

semantic errors such as building false concepts/systems: i.e. faulty comprehension of distinctions in the TL.

Sociolinguistic situation: motivation (instrumental or integrative) and settings for language learning (compound or co-ordinate bilingualism) may affect second language learning.

Modality: modality of exposure to the TL and modality of production.

Age: learning capacities vary with age.

Successions of approximative systems: since the circumstances of language learning vary from a person to another, so does the acquisition of new lexical, phonological, and syntactic items.

Universal hierarchy of difficulty: this factor has received little attention in the literature of 2nd language acquisition. It is concerned with the inherent difficulty for man of certain phonological, syntactic, or semantic items or structures. Some forms may be inherently difficult to learn no matter what the background of the learner.

James (1998: 178) suggests three main diagnosis-based categories of error:

Interlingual: interference happens when "an item or structure in the second language manifests some degree of difference from, and some degree of similarity with the equivalent item or structure in the learner’s first language" (Jackson, 1987 cited in James).

Intralingual:

Learning strategy-based errors:

false analogy

misanalysis

incomplete rule application

exploiting redundancy

overlooking co occurrence restrictions

hypercorrection (monitor overuse)

overgeneralization or system simplification

Communication strategy-based errors:

holistic strategies: e.g. approximation, language switch, claque

analytic strategies: circumlocution (expressing the concept indirectly, by allusion rather than by direct reference.

Induced errors: they "result more from the classroom situation than from either the student’s incomplete competence in English grammar (intralingual errors) or first language interference (interlingual errors) (Stenson, 1983: 256):

Material induced errors

Teacher-talk induced errors

Exercise-based induced errors

Errors induced by pedagogical priorities

Look-up errors

According to Dulay & Burt (1974), there are four types of "goofs":

Interference-like goofs

L1 Developmental goofs

Ambiguous goofs (either interference-like or L1 developmental goofs)

Unique goofs (neither interference-like nor L1 developmental goofs)

The studies relating to the process of language transfer and overgeneralization received considerable attention in the literature. Swan and Smith (1995: ix) gave a detailed account of errors made by speakers of nineteen different L1 backgrounds in relation to their native languages.

Work on overgeneralization errors, on the other hand, is reported by Richards (1974: 174-188), Jain (in Richards, 1974: 208-214) and Taylor (1975).

2.11.2.1 Interlingual/Transfer errors

Transfer errors are attributed to the native language (NL). There are interlingual errors when the learner’s L1 habits (patterns, systems or rules) interfere or prevent him/her, to some extent, from acquiring the patterns and rules of the second language (Corder, 1971). Interference (negative transfer)Is considered to be the negative influence of the mother language (L1) on the performance of the target language learner (L2) (Lado, 1964). It is 'those instances of deviation from the norms of either language which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a result of their familiarity with more than one language' (Weinreich, 1953:1).

Error analysis emphasizes "the significance of errors in learners’ interlanguage system" (Brown 1994: 204). The term interlanguage, introduced by Selinker (1972), refers to the systematic knowledge of an L2 which is independent of both the learner’s L1 and the target language. Nemser (1974: 55) referred to it as the Approximate System, and Corder (1967) as the Idiosyncratic Dialect or Transitional Competence.

2.11.2.2 Intralingual/Developmental errors:

Those errors are due to the language being learned (TL), independent of the native language. According to Richards (1974) they are "items produced by the learner which reflect not the structure of the mother tongue, but generalizations based on partial exposure to the target language. The learner, in this case, tries to "derive the rules behind the data to which he/she has been exposed, and may develop hypotheses that correspond neither to the mother tongue nor to the target language" .

Figure No.(3) After Al-Jumaily (1982:58)

2.12 Communication Strategies

As cited in Al-Jumaily (1982:57),Corder (1977:90) defines communication strategies as devices which the learner employs to exploit "whatever linguistic knowledge he possesses to achieve his communication ends".

James (1998:169) assures that communication involves both production and perception of language. It follows that communication strategies are neutral between those two modalities .Tarone (1993) cited by Swain and Lapkin (1995:278) argues that a learner's use of communication strategies can function to stretch an interlanguge system beyond its current limits, resulting in free variation as the learner test new hypothese in the search for an appropriate word or structure.

All the recognized strategies fall under Corder's (1978)dual classification of message adjustment and resource expansion strategies, the former signaling negative attitude on the part of the learner towards the communication task while the latter signal the learner's willingness to actively participate in the communication task. For this reason, Corder calls the first "Risk- Avoiding" and the second "Risk-Taking ".

2.12.1 Risk- Taking Strategies

a- Transfer

Corder (1978) distinguishes between transfer as a learning strategy (restructuring) and as a communicative strategy (borrowing) and suggests that the only way to distinguish one from the other is through the systematic nature of transfer features and the nonce occurrence of borrowings.(see Figure No. 3) .

This strategy may take the form of literal translation or in extreme case switching to another language.

b- Paraphrase

Tarone (1977) defines paraphrase as "the rewording of the message in an alternative, acceptable, target language construction, in situations where the appropriate form or construction is not known or not yet stable." She subdivides paraphrase into:

1- Approximation which is the use of a single target vocabulary item or structure ,which the learner knows is not correct, but which shares enough semantic features in common with the desired item to satisfy the learner.

2- Word Coinage occurs when a learner makes up a new word in order to communicate a desired concept(Al-Jumaily,1982:59).

3- Circumlocution is a combination of V'aradi's two strategies, circumlocution and description. This is a "wordly extended"

process in which the leaner describes the characteristics or element of the object or action instead of using the appropriate target language structures.

c- Appeal for Assistance

This strategy includes all the learner's attempts

To seek help from his interlocutor or even from a dictionary.

d- Mime

This means resourcing to paralinguistic behavior, i.e., nonverbal communication strategies .

Other risk –taking strategies have been reported by Tarone et al (1976) and Brown (1980)cited in Al-Jumaily,1982 such as overgeneralization ,over elaboration and pre-fabricated patterns.

2.12.2 Risk Avoiding Strategies

Tarone (1977) subdivides avoidance into tow

a. Topic avoidance.

This occurs when the learner simply does not talk about concepts for which the vocabulary is not known.

b. Message abandonment.

The learner begins to talk about a concept but is unable to continue.

2.11.6 Treatment of Errors in This Study

As a first step, we have developed, based on the literature (Corder, 1974; James, 1998; Selinker, 1972 in Richards, 1974; Richards and Sampson, 1974), a taxonomy for errors including the following categories and sub-categories: grammatical (prepositions, articles, reported speech, singular/plural, adjectives, relative clauses, irregular verbs, tenses, and possessive case), syntactic (coordination, sentence structure, nouns and pronouns, and word order), lexical (word choice), semantic, and substance (mechanics: punctuation and capitalization, and spelling).W's m (1990)comprises all the previously mentioned compacts as for the organizational/discourse criteria ,they are included in item A. (Relevance and adequacy of content)and in C.(Cohesion) (see Table No.(1) above) .So, errors are explained according to this model taking into consideration interlingual (negative L1 transfer) and intralingual transfer (overgeneralization of rules of L1) since they are needed to address the objectives of this study research namely, "Assessing the Performance of Bank Officers".

Related Studies

Different studies in ESP have been carried out from different aspects worldwide. Due to the huge amount of research in ESP, the discussion on here is restricted to three distinguished works in Iraq, works which have been highly rated.

2.12.1 Al –Fityan (1988)

In Iraq, this M.A. study offers an assessment of the English Language Programme then in use a the Police College (P.C.). It aims at i) finding out the extent to which the ELP is in conformity with the objective of P. C.; ii) identifying, specifying, and formulating the above mentioned objectives; and iii) proposing in outline form a notional – functional syllabus that answers the communicative needs of the graduates of the P.C. in their future practical life as officers in various police departments.

The researcher hypothesizes that ELP is inadequate owing to "its lack of perception of the specific objective of teaching English at the PC, and its negligence of the prospective needs of its graduates".

The instrument of the study is a thirty-item questionnaire designed to elicit assessment data from (166) P.C. third-year undergraduates about "the language needed by the learners for occupational and educational purposes". The number of instructors participating in data collection is not specified, neither is the total population of learners and instructors.

Data analysis is carried out by means of statistical tables and rates. No correlation coefficients between the responses of the learners and instructors are offered.

The study concludes that the course it assesses observes neither horizontal nor vertical orientation. No attention whatsoever is given to the grammar, or the grammatical links in structure or lexicon that may exit between each unit and the one subsequent to it. Similarly, the whole series manifests no vertical orientation, as the language activities exercised are very limited to reading and answering questions.

Finally, the researcher offers one model teaching unit as a specimen for a future ESP syllabus for P.C. The unit starts with three glossary lists which include colloquialisms and technical vocabulary items, a phone dialogue between a police officer and a mother about the arrest of her son due to disorderly conduct, comprehension questions on the dialogue, a reading text about a bank robbery plus reading comprehension questions, and six exercises about morphology (noun-derivation), syntax (passive voice and prepositions), sentence production of paired homophones and homonyms, and single idioms.

2.12.2 Wais ( 2005)

This study is a Ph.D. study which aims at improving performance in current jobs by remedying weaknesses in the University of Baghdad personnel's level , developing strengths and helping them use English in their jobs. Moreover, it improves the overall competence of the personnel in English language by identifying and analyzing the difficulties faced by them in learning English for special purposes.

The researcher hypothesizes that an intensive and comprehensive ESP programme can be designed for the employees at the University of Baghdad depending on their personal needs and job requirements in order to improve their competence in the English language.

The subjects of the study are a sample of participants which is limited to the personnel at the University of Baghdad. They are 100 employees from the staff management who have been selected from the colleges; College of Education Ibn-Rushd, of Arts, of Languages, and of Education for Women.

A 90 day programme is designed to achieve the aims of the study with ESP textbooks and EFL references as the sources for selecting materials. During the programme, basic skills namely; listening, speaking, reading, and writing are taught. The programme was carried out during 2004 – 2005.

In the light of the results and the conclusions, the researcher recommends that a- the ELT course to be designed for the learners at the University of Baghdad should be an ESP course for occupational purposes .b- The personnel needs analysis that has been carried out and outlined in the investigation could be used as a basis for any attempt to design a new ESP programme. This analysis characterizes the main objectives and needs of the prospective personnel. c-The suggested ESP programme is reliable even for the employees of other universities, ministries and establishments.

2.12.3 Al-Azzawi (2005)

The research here is carried out for the purpose of an M.A.degree at the University of Diyala.It provides an assessment of the English language teaching course used at the Junior Police College (equal to the preparatory school in general education) through its textbook (Policing English for Iraq,1995) in order to find out how far it satisfies the requirements of the English for Specific Purposes framework ,and to what extent it actually corresponds with professional and academic needs of the future Iraqi officers.

It is hypnotized that the English Second Language course Policing English For Iraq currently taught at the Police College lacks :1-Proper identification of the learners' specific vocational needs,2- Proper selction,grading and sequencing of English a second language material , and 3- proper and balanced development of the target language skills on the basis of the learners' needs profile. This has been achieved by designing an analytical technique in the form of piloted questionnaire instrument administered to a sample of two groups:English Foreign Language learners at the College of Police and expert university educationalists and police instructors .Statistical formulae were used to conduct data analysis to get the results in drawing the learners needs profile in English for Specific purposes materials design . The results obtained have been found to verify the hypotheses stated above .The results which have been interpreted mean that both content selection and presentation in the studied text book have not been based on the actual learners' needs.

2.13.4 Discussion of Related Studies

As is clear from the survey above, all three studies relied entirely on the learners' needs analysis saying nothing about the actual competence of their targeted audience and to what extent their interlanguage reflects their jobs'requirements.This study is going to redress this deficiency which is as believed here, essential for prospective syllabus design and materials writing. Moreover, as is clear from the procedures of each of these studies, they are all learner-centered, an approach whose validity was played down in favour of a learning-centered one (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987).The rationale for this orientation is succinctly outlined in this source. The current study is a blend of these two orientations focusing on learners needs with due attention to learning processes.



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