Reading And Writing Critically Are Difficult

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

The results of research can be found in books and journals, newspapers, popular magazines, memos, minutes and reports, government documents, dissertations, policy documents, computer-based materials, computer programs, conference papers, letters and diaries as well as in television and radio documentaries and news reports. Researchers who conduct complete literature reviews will consult all of these sources. Reading as many different kinds or sources of text enables the researcher to encounter a range of views and forms of presentation appropriate to the research topic.

Being able to write a literature review is an important skill to develop. Reading and writing critically are difficult skills to learn. A literature review requires planning and good clear writing. All the rules of good writing need to be followed: for example, good clear organisational structure, an introduction and conclusion, etc.

Literature surveys enable researchers to become more familiar with the area of research. It is important to integrate and summarize research already conducted in a particular area, learn from and build on research accomplished by others. All good researchers should read what other researchers have written about a specific topic. This ensures that researchers do not reinvent the wheel (repeat research that has already been carried out or worse still, repeat mistakes which have already been identified) and allows the researcher to �stand on the shoulders� of others.

The product of the literature survey is a literature review, which is sometimes included in the feasibility report.

The aims of this chapter are to discuss:

� why it is necessary to read for research,

� what the sources of literature for research are,

� how to read for research, and

� how to write a literature review.

The objective is for the student to:

� understand the importance of reading for literature review as part of research;

� be able to find relevant materials in the library, on the internet, etc;

� realize that reading for research is a selective process;

� know the importance of meticulously recording what is read; and

� more generally, understand the process involved in producing a literature review.

5.2 Introduction

The aim of the literature review is to discover what is already known about the research problem and how this can be used to help answer the research question in the most effective way. Literature reviews enable us to:

� become more familiar with the area that we are studying. It is important to integrate and summarize what has already been done in a research area,

� learn from and build on research conducted by others. We need to find out what is already known and use this as a basis for our research. It is pointless conducting the same research as others unless it is to verify their findings or to fill in the gaps.

� link our research with that done by others and to demonstrate its relevance by making connections to a body of literature, and

� examine different research projects, point to the similarities and differences, and indicate the direction of future research in the area.

5.2 Why conduct a literature review?

Although a literature review needs no justification, it is useful to list some reasons for conducting a literature review. These are in no particular order, and some may have no relevance to your research.

� Your own experience is not sufficient.

� You need to understand and appreciate what other researchers have done in your area.

� It will give you ideas.

� It enables you to broaden your perspective and set your work in context.

� It is interesting.

� Your supervisor expects you to conduct a literature review.

� It enables you to understand the disciplinary traditions within which you are working .

� You learn more about research methods and their application in practice.

� It may cause you to change your mind about some aspect of the research process.

� You are able to spot areas that have not yet been researched.

� You learn how to read abstracts etc. and determine if the report is worth reading.

� Somebody has to read the work written by other researchers.

� You get to know who is who in your research area.

� You can effectively criticize what other researchers have done.

� You learn to evaluate the quality of different researchers.

� It enables you to drop names when you are writing up your research.

� You learn to be selective and discriminate between good and bad research.

� Literature reviews enable you to legitimate your argument.

� You become better at reading.

� It will help improve your writing style.

5.3 At what stage should you conduct a literature review?

When you review the literature, you do so for different purposes depending on which stage of the research process you are at.

� At the beginning of your research you review the literature in order to:

� check what other research has been done,

� focus your ideas,

� explore the context of your project.

� During your research a literature review enables you to:

� keep interested and up to date with developments in your area of interest,

� better understand the methods you are using and the field you are researching,

� find data.

� After your research you review literature to:

� see what impact your research has had,

� help you develop ideas for further research.

5.4 What should you read?

You can find the results of research in books and journals, newspapers, popular magazines, memos, minutes and reports, government documents, dissertations, policy documents, computer-based materials, computer programs, conference papers, letters and diaries as well as in television and radio documentaries and news reports. Researchers who conduct complete literature reviews will consult all of these sources. Reading as many different kinds or sources of text enables you to encounter a range of views and forms of presentation appropriate to your topic.

Start by reading a few general, basic works on the research theme. Next read more specifically about the subject, especially research articles in professional journals. Read selectively, using only the latest editions of publications, since they contain the most up to date research information.

Use the bibliographies of the works consulted as sources for further reference. It is essential that all the articles read should be critically evaluated. The material that has been studied is useful only if it has been gathered and compiled in a complete and meaningful whole. A complete and usable record of the sources of all relevant information must therefore be kept. Make a summary of all the basic information relevant to the research theme. Ensure, however, that these summaries contain the following information:

� The author�s surname and initials.

� The title of the publication.

� The place of publication, publisher, year, volume and edition number.

� Page numbers.

When you are reading relevant articles, journals, books and papers, you will need to ask yourself a series of important questions:

� Am I selecting the right kind of material?

� Am I achieving a cross-section or balance of material on this topic.

� How much should I read?

� How should I analyse this material?

5.4.1 Distinction between types of materials

In using these different kinds of written sources, it will be useful to bear in mind a number of distinctions between the different types of material you are reading. Not all of these sources are neatly stacked on library shelves waiting for you to pick them up.

� Published and unpublished literature � you will use a lot of published materials but if the field you are researching is new, materials that you need may be unpublished. Unpublished materials such as committee minutes may be critical for your research � but these can be difficult to access as an outsider.

� Contemporary and classical works � while it is important to be as up to date as possible, you should not ignore older materials. There may be key classical texts in your discipline which you must refer to.

� Introductory and overview texts � all disciplines have produced one or more basic texts which summarize the development and current state of thinking. Even though these texts are introductory, they are useful in providing you with a quick entry into an unfamiliar subject area.

� Edited collections and literature reviews � these are particularly useful when starting out on your research project (especially if they have been recently published). Literature reviews are useful, but do not place too much emphasis on their reliability � as far as possible read the original texts.

� Methodological and confessional accounts � in addition to reading materials on your topic make sure that you read materials on approaches, techniques and methods that you are using in your research project.

5.5 Primary, secondary and tertiary texts

Primary texts are those that contain mostly data. Secondary texts are those that contain discussion and interpretation of data. Tertiary texts are those that contain relatively little argument, a lot of presentation of information and few references to sources of that information (like magazine articles). It is unwise to use mainly tertiary materials in your research. Remember, you cannot read everything that has been written about your research topic. You must be selective.

5.5.1 Primary texts

The research report or thesis is the primary source of authentic knowledge and information. There is usually only a limited number of these documents available, and access is often restricted. They contain an implied assurance that the facts presented have been properly documented, validated and verified with a formal acceptance by the user (e.g. an academic institution). In most cases it is satisfactory to use derived or secondary texts such as peer reviewed papers in professional journals without having to view the original report.

Primary texts that are mainly data are invaluable if you are developing new models, algorithms, theories, etc. based on them. They save time in data collection as the publication of the data implies that it has been adequately verified and properly documented for further use in the application area. Raw data is often available in machine readable form to minimize errors in transcription for input to your model.

5.5.2 Secondary texts

Published papers have a wider readership than primary texts, but still carry the same legitimacy. Summaries are usually available in published abstracts which should be consulted in the first instance. Although many papers are based on primary texts, most are the direct result of research.

Peer reviewed papers can normally be relied upon, but papers published as conference preprints need to be treated with caution until published in the conference proceedings. Similarly, other pre-publication avenues are becoming increasingly available, especially through the internet, and these should also be treated with caution, if not scepticism.

Textbooks and encyclopaedia are generally well researched and the publishers normally endeavour to ensure that the material is of the highest quality. These concise statements are often useful as initial sources of information, but the information extracted should be verified against other published material wherever possible.

5.5.3 The media

Most of us are dependent on news media for our perspectives of what happens in society. It often forms a considerable basis for what people consider �common sense�. Research produces a regular and vast quantity of information which is often offered up to us in various easily readable forms in the media. How often have you found yourself being dependent on the newspaper for facts and figures about society? We need critical skills in order to decipher whether or not to believe what we read � this is as important as believing what you hear. Socially we seldom believe everything we are told � a skill we humans try to develop from an early stage. The media requires the same degree of questioning and scepticism as something you are told. The fact that something occurs �in print� or �on television� does not mean that it is any more valid or reliable than the spoken word. We have to be able to go beyond �common sense� and, instead, establish what makes �good sense� for the purposes of valid and reliable information. The fact is that newspapers have to sell and choosing a focus and stories depends on the newsworthiness of the story. The editor has to show a profit. Newspapers tend to concentrate on the bad news, because generally we expect society to be ordered (ie to work). And what you expect is not news.

Throughout the world, the media rely heavily on official sources of information, especially about crime. Crime news is essentially police news. It is expensive to conduct independent research. This situation should leave us with considerable doubt about the nature of information in the press. While we all need the media, the question of how valid or reliable it is as a source of information when dealing with research is questionable.

This discussion is intended to illustrate the problems of the representation of research in the news media and how important this is for forming our understanding of society and social problems. We should:

� become conscious of research as presented by the news media,

� develop an ability to assess critically the validity and reliability of the news media presentation of information, and

� be able to trace and verify the sources of research presented in the media.

5.6 How to find what to read

It is often a daunting task when starting research for the first time to know how to look for information on your research subject. Once you have identified the subject area and narrowed it down to a suitable topic, you are now going to find out everything you can about it. Although you can do it all yourself, it is important to seek guidance from others. You will also have to do a lot of reading.

� Take advise from available sources: lecturers, colleagues, fellow students, and other researchers.

� Locate books or journals that appear in the library by asking the librarian, browsing around or using the catalogues or the computers.

� Once you have found the relevant shelf location, look around at other books that are relevant to your topic.

� Once you have found the relevant journal, look through recent issues to find the most up to date writing on your topic.

� Look at the references of original sources and locate those that look interesting.

� Identify key texts by noting those that are referred to again and again.

� As you develop a feeling for the literature relevant to your field, try and ensure that you have some understanding of, and have done some readings within its different areas.

� Do as much pertinent reading as possible.

5.6.1 Sources of information in the library

Libraries are a mine of information. It is important that you know how to locate this information and make use of the facilities that the library has to offer. Most academic libraries run tours that enable you to meet with relevant staff, locate information in catalogues and on shelves and generally make the most of the library services. Useful sources of information in the library include:

� Librarians � librarians are usually keen and interested to help. There is a lot a librarian will be able to help you with, if approached in the right way!

� Catalogues � you must know how the library is catalogued in order to make the best use of it. Otherwise, where do you start looking on seemingly endless shelves of books. You can usually locate information by author, title, and subject.

� Databases and computers � the computer system allows you to search for information by typing in key words. More and more indexes are becoming available on CDs.

� The library is also linked to the INTERNET which can be a valuable source of information.

� Abstract and reviews: Abstracts are books that contain up to date summary material on recent publications in a field. Reviews are contained in specialist periodicals and can be an invaluable guide to what has been published recently that might be worth reading or is influential.

� Dictionaries, encyclopaedias and atlases � these are useful starting points for research, though they do not deal with any topic in a lot of detail. Dictionaries record the words of a language and give information about their use, meaning, spelling and sometimes origin. There are dictionaries of a general nature as well as in specific subjects. Encyclopaedias are reference works that contain information on almost every topic. They should therefore be the starting point when studying any subject. The index will lead you to the required information and book lists will enable you to find additional material. Annual supplements supply up to date information and keep you abreast of current information. Atlases not only show given countries but may illustrate themes such as historical development, social development and scientific centres.

� Open shelves � finally the most obvious source of information is the shelves. Browsing can be a good way to find information � and this gives you a sense of the scope of the library�s holdings in a particular area. Do not get sidetracked by other interesting things.

� Most libraries have photocopying and microfilm facilities, clipping services, etc. Find out what is available.

� Most libraries have facilities for identifying and accessing Government publications.

� Inter-library loan � most libraries have a facility which allows you to access materials from another library (but you often have to pay for this service).

5.6.2 Sources of information on the internet

If you want some information � you will find it on the internet. The internet was established for and by academic researchers to allow them and others to find and access information. The internet is an ever growing and expanding pool of information that extends into many corners of life. People from all walks of life add to this pool, and many more search and retrieve this information. It is important that you know how to locate this information and make use of the facilities that the internet has to offer. But beware the authenticity of the information and be prepared to verify it independently. Useful sources of information on the internet include:

� The internet is a useful starting point for research, though it may not deal with any topic in a lot of detail. Browsing can be a good way to find information � and this gives you a sense of the scope of the information in a particular area.

� Search engines. These are extremely powerful computer systems that map the internet information and vie for the most efficient way to retrieve the exact information that you are looking for. It is up to the user, therefore, to describe the information in as specific and succinct a manner as possible. Learn how to express your request in the search engine logic and be prepared to sift through a lot of useless garbage. One word is worth one hundred thousand hits � so be more selective!

� Web sites. The internet contains a lot of web sites that specialise in a single topic with links to related aspects. You must know the useful web sites for your subject in order to make the best use of the internet.

� Databases. There are a number of technical databases that can now be accessed on the internet to allow online searches and retrieval. These include engineering, scientific, medical databases and so on.

� Although most of the information on the internet is freely available, be prepared to pay for valuable information and services.

� Abstracts and pre-publication papers. There is a growing tendency to add abstracts of current research, and papers that have been sent for publication. There are also a number of sites that contain reviews and preliminary reports of research in progress.

� Email. Direct access to other researchers is easy if you both have email addresses. Email is much faster than snail mail and less formal.

� Chat rooms. It is often useful to communicate interactively with other researchers and specialists in the field. Chat rooms allow for interactive communication from the keyboard, voice line, video etc. depending on the facilities available at both ends.

� And much, much more. Happy surfing!

5.7 How to read

For someone who is beginning to research it seems as though there is a lot to read and this can be very overwhelming. You will have to go through and understand a great deal of literature of various kinds. If you attempt literally to read all of this it will take you ages. You will most likely not be able to do so with all the other work you have to do. As a result you will have to be more selective in your reading. You need to learn to read books, reports and articles and pull out the gist of the argument quickly.

With some practice, you should be able to get the �gist� (the central points) of the book, report or article in five minutes or a little more if you read slowly or the report is highly technical. This initial reading will help you identify parts of the book that you will need to read more carefully and in greater depth. Note that a superficial understanding of the literature relevant to your topic is not sufficient. You must know enough to criticise and summarise intelligently.

5.7.1 How to �read� a book in five minutes

� Note down the author(s), title, publisher, and date of publication of the book or article, together with its location.

� Look for an introduction, concluding chapter, abstract or executive summary. If there is one, read it quickly scanning the contents. This will briefly tell you what the book is about and whether you should read further.

� Look at the content page and try to identify chapters which might be relevant to your study. Skim through the relevant chapter by reading the introduction and conclusion and going through sub-headings if there are any.

� If you are reading a book or report look for an index. If you are trying to look for a specific point you will be able to see from the index where in the text this is being discussed.

� In the text, key points will be highlighted, or they will be in the first or last paragraphs [note well for your own writing!]. Similarly the first and last sentences of paragraphs are often used to indicate and summarise their contents.

5.8 How to assess critically what you are reading

What does it mean to be critical! Critical thinking and critical reasoning refer to a �considered, though not necessarily balanced, and justified examination of what others have written or said regarding the subject in question�. Critical reading involves:

� reorganising � which is selecting what is important in each of the sources and putting together all you have learnt in a way that is coherent and relevant to your research interest,

� inferring � which refers to your awareness that there is more to what the author wishes to communicate than what is actually written down,

� evaluating � which means that you will be forming an opinion as to the worth of what you are reading. Does the author present good arguments or evidence for his or her assertions? Is the information easy to find? Do the authors express views that are consistent with one another? Do the authors distinguish clearly between what is fact and what is opinion, or does opinion often masquerade as fact?

Reading and writing critically are difficult skills to learn. Critical reading means that:

� you cannot merely describe the reading, you must offer opinion, and make a personal response to what has already been written;

� you relate different writings to each other, indicate where they are different and similar and highlight what they lack;

� you do not take what is written at face value; you strive to be explicit about the values and theories that inform and colour reading and writing;

� you see that research is an area that is contested and that different authors can have alternative views and positions.

Research reports should be based on facts that can be substantiated, and not on opinions. These are reserved for the conclusions which become a matter of opinion based on interpretation of results.

The following sections ask a number of questions that you should ask when critically evaluating a report. Remember to ask yourself these same questions when you are reading your own report!

5.8.1 What is the report about?

What the report is about is explained in the title, the abstract, and the section containing a statement of purpose. How well does the author communicate what the study is about? Answer these questions:

� Does the title indicate the important constructs and relationships in the study?

� Does the abstract provide enough information to make a decision about reading the full report?

� Does the abstract suggest the importance of the study?

� Is the purpose of the study stated clearly, and is it framed within introductory material that makes it easy to understand?

� Having read the title, abstract, and statement of purpose, do you find yourself interested in reading the next part of the study?

5.8.2 How does the study fit into what is already known?

Several parts of the report may provide information that places the study in the context of previous knowledge, including the introduction, research purpose, and related literature references. How well does the author explain how the study fits into what is already known? Answer these questions:

� Is the topic of the study introduced in terms of previous investigations?

� Does the author explain what is known and not known in sufficient detail for you to understand how the study fits into the present structure of knowledge?

� Were decisions about the design and procedures of the study explained in terms of what has been found effective (or ineffective) in previous investigations?

� If there have been conflicting findings in the relevant literature, were they discussed and given consideration in the present study?

� Do the references include recent reports from investigators who have established track records for research in the area?

5.8.3 How was the study done?

The Method section of a report is intended to explain precisely and thoroughly how the study was conducted. Five basic topics in the typical Methods section of the report can be examined.

? Subjects

The targets of investigation may be animate or inanimate. How well does the author explain how decisions were made about the nature, number, and selection of subjects? The core questions are:

� Is there a clear explanation for why these particular subjects were selected?

� Are the selection criteria clearly specified?

� Is the selection process thoroughly explained?

� Has the author explained why the number of subjects is adequate to the procedures and purpose of the study?

� Is the quality of the subject sample high (do most of them closely match the selection criteria)?

� Does the author address any limitations produced by selection procedures?

� Is there evidence that the subjects were treated with due consideration for ethical standards?

? The research plan or design

How clearly does the author explain the research strategy employed in the study, and is it presented before such things as sampling, subjects, instruments and procedures? The questions are:

� Does the author name the design procedure and introduce the primary variables and their relationships, distinguishing between independent and dependent variables?

� Is the general design of the study explained in clear terms?

� Is the rationale given for the selection?

� Is the subsection dealing with design placed where it is helpful in understanding the remainder of the report?

? The instrumentation

Every report must introduce the artifacts (tests, measuring instruments, and protocols for obtaining data) that were used in the study. These might include instrumentation ranging from hardware such as calipers, gauges, or accelerometers to paper documents such as questionnaires, survey forms and computer programs. What are the ingredients or components of the model and are they described in terms of quantities and qualities? Why were these instruments used and others not used? Other questions are:

� Are the instruments used in the study named and described?

� Have researcher-constructed instruments been pilot tested?

� In each case for which it is appropriate, are validity and reliability values provided?

� Has a rationale been given for selection when there were other available options?

? The procedures

How thoroughly does the author explain the procedures for using all of the instrumentation for the study?

� Were you informed of the environmental conditions under which each instrument was used?

� Does the report indicate the exact protocol to use for each instrument?

� Are you told how data from each instrument were recorded?

� Does the author explain the exact manner in which each intervention was applied?

? The analysis

It does not matter that you do not understand the detail of the analysis at this stage unless you are going to criticize the mathematical and statistical procedures used.

� Does the author describe how the data was organized?

� Is there a plain-language description of the mathematics or statistics used?

5.8.4 What was found?

In traditional quantitative studies, authors have two options for indicating the results: the end products of numerical or statistical analysis expressed in numeric form usually embedded in text or displayed in tables, and symbolic representations such as graphs, diagrams and photographs. Figures are distinguished from tables which usually convey exact values in numerical or verbal form.

? Figures

Poor figures are more than just a nuisance, they are a warning signal for the more general problems of inadequate reporting and weak conceptualization. Critical questions that should be asked concerning the display of findings through figures include:

� Does the caption clearly identify the variables displayed?

� Do the legends on the figure clearly identify the scales assigned to each axis?

� Does the caption provide essential information about the source of data at each interval, as well as significant differences or interactions?

� Was everything you needed to understand the findings easily available, or did you have to retreat to the text to retrieve explanatory information?

? Tables

Although figures are the ideal format for revealing trends, relationships, and relative proportions, tables serve other important functions, such as condensing large volumes of raw data into an economical space and preserving the precise characteristics of those data. Points plotted on a graph may be generally accurate portrayals of the raw data, but they rarely can be precise. For any table:

� Does the title clearly identify the contents of the table?

� Does the table clearly identify all the variables or categories of variables displayed in the data field?

� Do the row and column headings clearly identify the exact nature of the data contained?

� If appropriate, is information about sample or treatment group sizes provided?

� If appropriate, are statistically significant numbers clearly marked and referenced in explanatory footnotes?

� Is the degree of numeric precision no greater than necessary for sustaining the meaning of the findings?

� Was everything you needed to understand the table easily available, or did you have to retreat to the text to retrieve explanatory information?

5.8.5 What do the results mean?

The findings of the study are simply reported, often without comment. On the other hand, the conclusions are where the author considers all that has happened, decides what has been learned, and communicates it often with extensive comment. All conclusions are tentative, however, and held contingent on future enquiry. In that sense, all conclusions are hypotheses. Critical inspection of the conclusions often demands some referring back to previous parts of the report. Critical questions are:

� Do the conclusions stay within the bounds of the findings, or do they range into unsupported speculation?

� Are the conclusions presented in such a manner that it is easy to connect them with the purposes of the study and the specific research problems that shaped it?

� Does the author help you understand how the results fit into the fund of existing knowledge?

� Is the author frank and thorough in presenting the limitations to which the conclusions are subject?

� In retrospect, is it your sense that the author has made an adequate response to the question, �So what?�

5.9 Literature reviews

Literature reviews often can be found in the same journals that publish research papers. There are also periodicals that publish only research reviews. In yet other cases, reviews are included in or appended to other documents such as dissertations, grant proposals, technical yearbooks, encyclopaedias and research compendia for particular disciplines. Reviews vary in both degree of technical detail and quality of writing. They are prose documents that range from awkward, obscure and poorly organized to lucid and transparent expositions as economical in format as they are graceful in expression.

Reviews reflect four facts about the research literature:

� Reviews appear in virtually all disciplines and active areas of investigation.

� Reviews often are the best place to begin when you want a sense of what has been studied and learned with regard to a particular topic.

� For some purposes, good reviews can provide sufficient information to satisfy your needs without having to read the original reports.

� Reviews are highly diverse creatures (in format, method and scope) and can be very complex technical literature.

All reviews are retrospective examinations of studies done in a particular area or, less commonly, studies that employ a particular method. They all attend to the question of what can be learned from the studies examined. Most reviews provide comment on how the findings of the studies fit into the fabric of existing knowledge. Finally, most reviews give some attention to persisting problems for the conduct of inquiry in the research area and what might be done to improve the yield of theoretically or practically significant knowledge.

5.9.1 How to read a literature review

The following set of questions can be used as a guide for reading reviews:

� What review is this (give a full citation)?

� How does the author justify the review? What purpose is it intended to serve?

� How is the selection of the studies handled? Is the review exhaustive, limited to a given time period, or restricted to research that involves a particular design, methodology or model?

� How is the question of quality in the selected studies handled? What does the author say about the credibility of what is reviewed?

� How does the author sort or categorize studies? What theoretical framework is used to organize the studies reviewed?

� Are actual data reported (qualitative or quantitative), or is the review data-free? Give an example to show type.

� Is there an attempt to identify (give examples):

� need for additional research?

� problems with the kind of questions asked?

� persisting technical difficulty with study designs, methods, subjects, or data analysis?

� Where is the task of summary handled (after major sections, end of review, not at all, etc.)?

� How are the tasks of summary and integration handled? How does the author get from individual studies to general conclusions?

� What are the main conclusions drawn from the review?

� What applications (if any) are suggested as a result of reviewing the studies? How careful (explicit, clear, thorough) do you think the author has been in basing personal suggestions on the studies reviewed and the conclusions derived?

� Write an abstract of what you might have said if you were asked to review this review. Do not repeat method, content or conclusions, but focus on such issues as clarity, credibility, organization, topicality and utility.

5.9.2 How to write a literature review

Being able to write a literature review is an important skill to develop. A literature review requires planning and good clear writing. You need to follow all the rules of good writing: for example, good clear organisational structure, an introduction and conclusion, etc. The wrong way to write a literature review is to list a series of research reports with a summary of the findings of each. This type of review does not communicate a sense of purpose and reads as a set of notes that are just put together without any further thought. The correct way to write a literature review is to:

� organise common findings or arguments together;

� address the most important ideas first;

� logically link statements or findings;

� note discrepancies or weaknesses in the research.

You should also try to paraphrase a few critical quotes and summarise the key findings.

5.9.3 How to reference material

References in the literature review should always follow a consistent style. The name and date (Harvard) system is preferred to the numerical system.

In the Harvard system the text reference is given as �Queen (2000)� or (Queen, 2000)� depending on the context and the references are listed alphabetically at the end of the text.

In the numbered reference system the references are numbered according to their order of appearance in the text. The reference list should appear in the same numerical sequence and will thus be non-alphabetical. It is preferable to use superior numbers (Queen10) rather than square brackets(Queen [10]) for reference numbers if the numbered reference system is being used.

Check very carefully that all references cited in the text appear in the reference list and vice versa, and that names and dates are the same in the text and in the list of references.

The reference list should give the names and initials of all authors unless there are more than four, in which case only the first three should be given followed by et al.

�Unpublished observations� and �personal communications� should not be used as references, although references to written, not verbal, communications may be inserted in parentheses in the text. Typescripts accepted but not yet published may be included in the reference list, followed by �in press� in parentheses.

The place of publication is not usually required to be given in references, but may be included in a consistent manner and style: Queen, Y. Z. (1990). Title of Book. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Examples of references

� Book with a personal author:

Queen, Y. Z. (1990). Title of Book. Butterworth-Heinemann.

� Journal article:

Queen, Y. Z. (1996). Title of article. SA. J. Eng., 25, 187-96.

� Chapter in book:

Queen, Y. Z. and King, R. S. (1999). Title of chapter. In Title of Book (A. B. Prince, ed.) pp 161-9, Butterworth-Heinemann.

� Agency publication:

Ministry of the Environment (1995). Publication title. HMSO.

� Government report:

Name of the report (Princess Report, 1994). SAGP.

� Newspaper article:

Chief, C. D. (1999). Title of article. Newspaper title, 22 November, p. 21.

� Internet citation:

Queen, Y.Z. (date of retrieval): Title of entry. Web site, address.

5.10 Summary

Having gone through this chapter and the tasks related to this lecture you should:

� understand the importance of reading or literature review as part of research;

� be able to find relevant materials in the library and on the internet;

� realize that reading for research is a selective process;

� know the importance of meticulously recording what you read; and

� more generally, understand the process involved in producing a literature review.

Critical thinking is a considered and justified examination of what others have written or said about a subject.

Exercises

1 When the librarian has taken you through the library, find a book, a journal article and a subject dictionary or encyclopaedia that is relevant to your research question and write out the references to these materials. Do not take very long to select this material.

2 Select one concept that is relevant to your research question. Find the definition of this concept in a subject dictionary or encyclopaedia and write this out.

3 Take the book you have selected and give yourself five minutes to read it. Note down all the important points you can about the book. Your aim is to summarize the key message(s) of the book. You might concentrate on the content, method, theory of the text, or try to do all three.

4 Describe your research topic in a few key words. Using your key words, search for information on your topic until you have more than five but fewer than fifteen documents. Print these references.

Tasks

Write a state-of-the-art literature review of your selected research topic. This will be in the form of a research paper for publication in a specialist periodical to provide an invaluable guide to what has been published recently that might be worth reading or is influential.