Materials Development Theories Focusing On Grammar Teaching

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

For example, if anyone who thinks of his/her own native language does not able to list all the tenses with their corresponding uses and structures that exist in that language, unless talking about a teacher, a translator or a linguist. This does not mean that those who cannot name all the tenses are not successful users of the language. After all, they can understand and express whatever they want easily (Hung in Cohen and Robbins, 1976). This means that although they may lack the conscious ability to describe how their language works they make a perfect use of the grammar of their native language intuitively or subconsciously. This thought caused a major shift in the history of language teaching from reading and writing to speaking, this new approach is called Communicative Language Teaching (Hymes, 1972; Trudgill, 1974; Wilkins 1972, 1976; Va Ek & Alexander, 1980; Widdowson, 1999; Brumfit, 2000; Johnson, 1999). This approach focuses on the notions and functions rather than the grammar structure. The goal is to create a realistic context for language acquisition in the classroom, though group and pair work, language games, role plays (Krashen 1985). The teacher's role is to monitor, encourage the students and give them feedback which leads the students to self-correction (Richards and Rodgers, 1986).

2.2 Second language grammar teaching and learning

According to Ellis (1994) second language acquisition research promotes that grammar teaching should take into account three key principles. First of all, he suggests that learners need to pay attention to both meaning and form. Second of all, new grammatical features are more likely to be acquired when learners become aware and understand them in input than when they are told explicitly and are engaged in widespread production practice. And at last learners' awareness of the forms helps them to acquire grammatical features eventually.

One of the views of second language acquisition theories is that learners should focus first on meaning rather than form. On the other hand, theories put forward in order to argue that it is necessary to give some attention to form to help the process of acquisition (Ellis, 1994; Spada, 1997; Ranta, 1998; Gas, Mackey & McDonough, 2000; Long & Robinson, 2000). As Ellis (1994) states, the problem is that learners find it difficult to concentrate  both form and meaning at the same time. Thus, when they are focused on meaning they pay no attention to form and, when they concentrate on form, their understanding suffers. For this reason, Ellis (1994) suggests that they need meaning-based tasks that also permit the opportunity to process language as a form. 

The second principle according to Ellis (1994) is that grammar should be taught through input, not as traditionally been taught by the use of production practice, in which students had to try to use a grammatical structure in controlled exercises. Current theories of second language acquisition claims that grammar can be taught more successfully through input than through manipulating the output (Ellis, 1984; Lightbown, 1985; Long & Robinson, 1998; Skehan, 1989, 1998, 2003; Swain, 1993; Swain & Deters, 2007; Gass, 2000, 2001, 2003; Gass, Mackey & McDonough, 2000; Smidth, 1990, 1995; Ranta, 1998, among others). Ellis calls this ‘interpretive’ grammar task, which " ... focus(es) learners’ attention on a targeted structure in the input and [...] enable(s) them to identify and comprehend the meaning(s) of this structure. This approach emphasizes input processing for comprehension rather than output processing for production ..." (Ellis 1995:88). Another point, that Ellis (1994) claims to be important, when teaching grammar to students is the role of awareness. (Rutherford, 1995; Sharwood-Smith, 1988; Ellis, 1992; Rutherford, 1987). Schmidt (1990, 1994) also suggests that learning a language is largely a conscious process and noticing is important in the learning process. He says that because learners acquire new grammatical structures gradually and slowly, grammar instructions are unlikely to achieve immediate success (Schmidt, 1990). This suggests that grammar teaching needs to give emphasis to how grammatical features work rather than precision. There is more chance that learners who are aware of grammatical structures will notice them when they next meet with them, therefore, awareness can prompt learning (Schmidt, 1990; Ellis, 1997; Fotos, 2001).

One way to develop awareness of a structure is simply by telling the students explicitly how it works using a deductive method (Pienemann, 1988). When using a deductive method the teacher starts with the rules and definitions then applies them to particular examples and clarifies implications of the principles. For example ‘I went to France last year. Note, I said when and used the Simple Past. I’ve been to China many times. I didn’t say when, so it’s Present Perfect.’ After this the definitions and the rules have to be memorized by the students. Another way to raise awareness, which seems more promising, is to use an inductive method, with the help of consciousness-raising tasks. Richards and Schmidt (2002) defined consciousness raising as

...techniques that encourage learners to pay attention to language form in the belief that an awareness of form will contribute indirectly to language acquisition. Techniques include having students infer grammatical rules from examples, compare differences between two or more different ways of saying something, observe differences between a learner’s use of a grammar item and its use by native speakers. A consciousness-raising approach is contrasted with traditional approaches to the teaching of grammar (e.g. drilling, sentence practice, sentence combining), in which the goal is to establish a rule or instill a grammatical pattern directly (pg. 109).

As Thornbury says, these tasks are "giving learners more responsibility and involvement in the learning process" (2000: 27). For example: The teacher holds three pens and says to the first student take a pen, to the second student take a pen, and to the third student take the pen. Now think about the difference between a and the. Using an indirect method the students get an opportunity to apply their brain and intelligence and to become the discoverer of rules and usage of grammar (Thornbury, 2000). This method also helps students to build confidence and be a partner in the classroom, which makes the students less dependent on the teacher, and helps student autonomy (Lewis, 1986; Harmer, 2001). Harmer (2001) points out that these exercises engage learners in a cognitive activity which will not suit all learners, which is why it is not an easy job for the teacher. As Lewis (1986) explains it requires the teacher, as well, to be aware of things for example the use of past tense, not only as a device for temporal distancing, but also for psychological distancing. This may be unmanageable for many teachers, who perhaps prefer the security of rules; however, the rules can be inaccurate, and the information that the students have to deal with is arguably more demanding and not more suitable than the awareness raising exercises (Tomlinson, 2003). As Brown concludes, "While it might be appropriate at times to articulate a rule and then proceed to instances, most of the evidence in communicative second language teaching points to the superiority of an inductive approach to rules and generalizations." (2007:105). Willis states (1990) that because of the complexity and unpredictability of the English language there is not ‘a best way’, which is why he suggest teachers should outline the elements and encourage learners to examine their experience of the language. First it is important to introduce the topic to the students, so it gives them an idea of the lesson, create an interest in the topic (Hyland, 2007). According to several previous researches (Philips and Shettlesworth 1978; Clarke 1989; Peacock 1997, cited in Richards, 2001; Guariento & Morley, 2001) teachers should provide the students exposure to real language and real situations in context.  Revision and referring back to the topic again, as many times as necessary is also essential for them to finally acquire the new structures in a natural way. This is why a topic or a grammar point that had already been introduced to the class should not be forgotten, the teacher should not assume that students had already learnt it, as learning takes time and practice. The time in class should be used for providing learners with a variety of activities, and communicative situations, focusing on meaning and use, rather than making them focus on drills and patterns that they could easily practise on their own in their homework.

According to Smith (2007) grammar lessons should start from a communicative situation with the focus on understanding the message from the gist up to the detailed information later, and once the meaning is clearly understood, the form of the grammar item can follow. The advantage of this approach is that while dealing with grammar, the students will have a clear idea of the context in which it was used and the communicative need is also satisfied. One of the most recent and favoured theories in SLA is accelerated learning. As Best and Thomas (2008) introduce, accelerated learning (whole-brain learning or brain-based learning) techniques have been developed, taking into account recent knowledge of how the brain works, it also includes the promotion of a positive learning environment, and ensures learners are in an appropriate physiological and psychological state to learn. Smith (2007) cleverly summarises the key elements of accelerated learning in his work with the acronym ‘NO LIMIT’. The acronym stands for:

Know the brain: This focuses on brain functions and how to make it more receptive for learning.

Openness and relaxation: This element focuses on the effects of a positive atmosphere and how to achieve it, e.g. structured breaks, relaxation techniques, confidence building.

Learn to capacity: This focuses on the tools, which help effective learning, e.g. music, less teacher talk, non-verbal communication.

Input through VAK: This focuses on how teaching methods and contents can be adapted to meet the different perceptional learning styles, such as Visual, Auditory, and Kinaesthetic.

Multiple intelligence activities: This focuses on how intelligences (Verbal, Logical, Visual, Musical, Kinaesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic, Existential) (Gardner, 1993) help improve effectiveness in teaching and learning.

Invest more through BASIS: The acronym stands for Belonging, Aspirations, Safety, Identity, Challenge, and Success. These points suggest that students should have a role in the school, should have realistic goals, should feel safe, should have a strong sense of identity, should face achievable challenges and should experience success, which will help positive self- esteem.

Try it, test it and review it: This point introduces that the activities should be integrated. See below how Smith summarises it in the accelerated learning cycle.

Figure 1: The accelerated learning cycle – Alistair Smith (2007)E:\university\Year 3\Dissertation\New Folder\accelerated learning cycle.png

http://www.docstoc.com/docs/23877252/THE-ACCELERATED-LEARNING-CYCLE

Best and Thomas (2008) summarizes that using accelerated learning techniques students will become more engaged and motivated in their learning. They will be challenged by activities which are appropriate to their level and learning style, and will construct meaning by building on what they already know.

2.2.2 Materials development theories focusing on grammar teaching

There are several points introduced by Tomlinson (1998) that should be taken into account when it comes to second language (L2) materials development. This research focuses on L2 grammar teaching and learning, which is why the relevant points to producing teaching and learning materials are going to be discussed further.

One of the main points of materials development is that materials should expose learners to language in authentic use. This is important in grammar teaching because, pupils have difficulties learning complex grammatical concepts. The invented examples used to teach grammar are often simple but unrealistic, which is why students can find these difficult to apply to their own language use. This is one of the reasons, why materials should present how the language is used in real life, so the students can see how to use the different grammar structures in their everyday. The adapted materials are aiming to achieve this. The main difference between authentic and graded materials is that the graded materials are usually only concerned with a particular structure that is presented to the student, while authentic materials give a sample on how ‘real’ language is used (Swan, 1985).  For example, if the topic is to teach the simple past tense, every dialogue or text is in that tense. In reality, when talking about something there is a variety of tenses used. For example, "Last night something very funny happened to me. I was walking down the street and suddenly a man comes and looks at me in the face and says: boy, you are ugly" (Foppoli, 2006). Graded materials do not resemble real life situations, while authentic materials do. On the other hand authentic materials have disadvantages as well. The main disadvantage of authentic materials is that it is time consuming to find something that can be used in the class. Another shortcoming is that the chances are high that there is only one example in the whole material that is to be presented to the students, although it can be solved by giving students more than one situation, which of course requires the teacher to spend more time searching for more materials that can be used (Foppoli, 2006).

Tomlinson (1998) suggests that materials should achieve impact and should maximise learning process by promoting intellectual, aesthetic and emotional involvement. This can be important when teaching grammar, because it activates both sides of the brain, which can speed the acquisition of the grammar. Materials can achieve impact on students when they are relevant to them, interest them. Unusual topics and activities, variety of skills by the use of different text types or technology, use of colours and photographs, engaging stories and tasks that challenge the students are likely to have an impact on them (Tomlinson, 1998; McDonough and Shaw, 2003) and make the grammar learning easier. Research has shown (Dulay, Burt and Krashen, 1982; Peacock, 1997 in Matines, 2002; Nunan, 1999; Tomlinson, 1998) that students learn faster when they feel more relaxed and comfortable. According to Smith the first step is to create a supportive learning environment with low stress level, so the students can deal with high challenges, such as discovering the grammar. The use of white space, pictures and interesting texts can also contribute to create a supportive learning environment, which can help students to acquire the grammar faster (Sheldon, 1988; Cunningsworth, 1984; Nunan, 1991; Khaniya, 2006 ).

Richards (2001) elaborates that the tasks should be flexible and appeal to different styles and strategies, and should not favour one type of learner over another, because not everybody learn the same way. According to Smith (2007), multi-sensory input can help to speed up the learning process when learning grammar, because there is a bigger chance that students will remember when more than one type of input is provided. Materials should take into account that the positive effects of grammar instructions are delayed most of the time (Tomlinson, 1998), because learning is a long and gradual process (Lightbown, 1985), from ignorance to mastery. This is why after introducing a grammar point, it should not be expected that students have mastered it. At the same time materials should provide the learners with opportunities to use the target language, so they can try to apply the grammar and experiment with the new point. Learners' attention should be drawn to the linguistic features of the input. There seems to be an agreement amongst many researchers that helping learners to pay attention to linguistic features of authentic input can help them to acquire some of those features. This, of course, does not happen immediately, but there is an increased likelihood of acquisitions if relevant input provided in the future. Materials should not rely too much on a controlled practice of grammar in the classroom, because these exercises have little effect on the long term accuracy (Ellis, 1990). Materials should provide opportunities for outcome feedback (Tomlinson, 1998). It is important not just to practice the language, but to give a purpose for the practise, such as putting learners in situations, creating a purpose for them to use the language (e.g. borrowing something, persuading someone, etc.). Students who fail to achieve the purpose will more likely to gain from the feedback on the effectiveness of their language use, than a learner that has no purpose of the outcome. Materials should revisit the previously learnt points to reinforce what was learned before to help the acquisition of the grammar items (Tomlinson, 2011). This can be important to take into account when designing materials for grammar teaching, because one grammar point needs to be recycled three, four times before it stays in the long term memory. If students meet the grammar point more time also in different contexts it lets them to develop an understanding of the different meanings and use (Cunningsworth, 1995). All the above points can help students to acquire the grammar eventually. As can be seen in my own adaptation the unit is aiming to achieve the above listed points, because when learning grammar according to accelerated learning principles they are important.

In attempt to put together these principles into materials for teaching grammar, I have adapted a checklist (Fenyvesi, 2013, see in appendix 2) to help the analysis of materials and developed a sequence of tasks that can be found in the Chapter 4 (4.2).