02 Nov 2017
Information and Communication Technology consists of various tools and systems that can be exploited by capable and creative teachers to improve teaching and learning situations. Lim and Tay (2003) classification of ICT tools as :
1) Informative tools - Internet, Network Virtual Drive, Intranet systems, Homepage, etc.
2) resignation devices - CD-ROM, etc.
3) Constructive tools - MS Word, PowerPoint, FrontPage, Adobe Photoshop, Lego Mindstorm, etc.
4) Communicative tools - e-mail, SMS, etc.
5) Collaborative tools - discussion boards, etc. forum
The five categories of ICT tools listed above are discussed in more detail under the following headings.
Informative tools are applications that provide large amounts of information in various formats such as text, graphics, sound, or video. Informative tools can be regarded as a passive repository of information (Chen & Hsu, 1999). Examples include tools and information resources of the existing multimedia encyclopedia of the Internet. The Internet is a huge electronic database, and researchers consider the Internet as the most significant ICT tools in e-learning environments. Pew Internet & American Life Project did a survey in 2002 showed them three out of five children under the age of 18 and more than 78% of children between the ages of 12 and 17 lines. Key findings from this study are found in Levin & Arafeh (2002) shows that students rely on the internet to help them do their homework. In short, students consider the Internet as a virtual textbook, reference library, virtual tutor, learn to study shortcuts and virtual study groups (McNeely, 2005). Listen
Read phonetically
Situating tools  is a system that lay the students in the environment where it involve a context and the occurrence of a situation. Examples of such systems include simulation, virtual reality and multi-user domain. Situating tools software tools such as CD-ROM. CD-ROM offers hypermedia application which gives better opportunities for teachers to enhance learning environment. Hypermedia application covers more than one of the following media such as text, audio, graphic images (still images), animation and video clips. Hypermedia applications are well integrated in the learning environment to enhance student autonomy and thinking (Cheung & Lim, 2000). A multimedia presentation topic will help students to conceptualize the ideas of the real world by integrating the theories in the practical application of real-world situations. It is to increase students' ability to use the conceptual tools of the discipline in authentic practice. (Phillips, 2004) Multimedia able to put the amazing array of resources on student and lecturer resources on teaching and student 1control. "Multimedia learning active learning to create a more dynamic, interactive, collaborative, and satisfying" (Supyian, 1996)
constructive tool is a general purpose tool that can be used to manipulate information, construct their own knowledge or visualize students understanding. Construction tools such as Microsoft Word or Powerpoint has a strong impact in the educational environment and is widely used in most organizations in the form of memos, reports, letters, presentations, record routine information, giving businesses the most (McMahon, M. 1997.) In learning a second language , Microsoft Word manage to help students to make correct sentences and texts as well as modern word processors include spell checking and dictionaries and grammar checkers. Therefore, teachers can use the software to promote writing in the curriculum. PowerPoint is a presentation graphics program packaged as part of Microsoft Office for Windows or Macintosh. Although generally used for developing business presentations , it is also very advantageous in the context of increase creativity among students. While word processing program is the most common computer applications used, as a spreadsheet like Excel is just as important in teaching and learning of English. Students will be exposed to learning design and statistical data using the Excel program that can be automated through the formula.
Communicative tools are systems that allow easy communication between teachers and students or between students outside the physical barrier classroom. (Chen, D., Hsu, JJF, and Hung, D. 2000) It is including e-mail, electronic bulletin boards, chat, teleconference and electronic whiteboard. Synchronous communicative tools such as chat or video conference enable real-time communication while using the tools of communicative asynchronous (eg e-mail and electronic whiteboard) is a system in which exchange of messages between people are not 'live' but somehow delayed. Communicative tool most appropriate for activities requiring more time to think before responding. Utilization of electronic mail is increasing day by day. E-mail is the most commonly used on the Internet. It is easy to use as it is a primarily text-based system and simple communication tool for teachers and students that allows students to dominate class beyond physical barrier. (Chen, D., Hsu, JJF, and Hung, D., 2000.)
Collaboration tools of ICT is currently the focus of much interest and emerging as development of new tools that make online collaborative projects draw a realistic option for a distributed group work. Internet can be used for many collaborative activities such as meetings, discussions are taking place, working in the document, information dissemination, and other tasks. Interactive electronic whiteboard is not just used as tools for meeting and development, but recently became the most popular tool among teachers. whiteboard is an electronic device that interfaces with the computer where the computer image is displayed on the board that can be manipulated interactively (Weiser and Jay, 1996). This tool is increasingly popular with teachers, when used in conjunction with a computer and a video projector that produces interactive learning community. Instead of having to crowd around one or two computers, interactive whiteboard not only display the materials, but also to respond to human interaction with computer commands and orders on a touch screen. In addition, these technologies provide impulsive information sharing, constructing knowledge and stimulate personal growth. (Mona, 2004). Other collaborative tools, such as E-mail messaging, Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) and General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) embedded in micro-browser equipped mobile phones or GPRS enabled handheld computers are other ICT tools that that can link students in different geographic locations exceeding the boundaries of class. In addition, the development of mobile phone and PDA allows learners to exchange information in a short time simultaneously and asynchronously, and provides flexibility for one-one, one-to-many and many-to-many communication, especially for the online discussion forum. (Lim & Lee, 2002). In conclusion, a "learning is no longer seen as a solitary activity, but is described as taking place through social interaction with peers, mentors and experts" (Kings, 1998).
It important to analyze the facts occur within the new technology and the learning process should be viewed in the perspective of learning English. Most of the simple basic use of ICT devices in the educational environment that leads to the following benefits:
Increase in pupils’ motivation, enthusiasm and confidence
Positive association with attainment
Learning possibilities expanded via collaboration, interaction and communication in the target language
Potential for differentiation according to individual pupil need
The utilization of ICT tools in education was increasingly felt in recent times and benefits the students with the appropriate exploitation. It facilitates latest information for user by at a click of a mouse. According to Ofsted (2002), ICT tools can perform four essential functions as follows:
The speed and automatic functions of ICT allow a teacher to demostrate , explore and clarify aspects of the teaching method which enable the students learn more effectively;
The capacity and coverage of ICT to assist the teachers and pupils easily access to for historical event or current formation
the temporary nature of information stored, processed and presented using ICT enable simpler method as documents could be change and correced by editing software provided in the programs.
the interactive way in which information is stored, processed and presented can enable teachers and students to explore the model, to communicate effectively with others and present information effectively to different audiences..
Research has shown that appropriate use of ICTs to catalyze a paradigm shift in both content and pedagogy that is the heart of education reform in the 19th century. ICT-supported education to enhance the success of the ongoing knowledge and skills that will give the students continuous learning if properly designed and implimented. Leveraging ICT in an appropriate manner enables new methods of teaching and learning, especially for students in exploring exciting ways of problem solving in the context of education. New ways of teaching and learning is supported by constructivist learning theory and paradgm shift from teacher-centered pedagogy of memorization and rote-learning to focus on student centered. (See Table 1 for a comparison of a traditional pedagogy and an emerging pedagogy enabled by ICTs)
Source: Thijs, A., et al. Learning Through the Web Available Online http://www.decidenet.nl/Publications/ Web_Based_Learning.pdf Accessed 12 December 2010.
Based on Becta's analysis, ICT can have positive effects on teaching and learning of English. Research alert benefits for students and teachers. As far as benefits for the pupils are concerned, it seems that digital resources to facilitate students' individual practice with what they have learned previously (Passey et al, 2004.), At that time they can be slowed to a better understanding. According Teachernet (not dated), the real success widereaching way communication can be solved by videoconference with native speakers, which can deliver a rich and real experience to students. If not, students can be helped by some word processors and their applications to review, edit and summarizes the text. E-mail correspondence with the 'e-friend' is another important communication tool that can have a positive impact on grammar, vocabulary and tenses (Blyth, 2001).
As far as benefits for the teachers concerned, there seems to be affirmative relationship out of the use of ICT in teaching and learning with the performance (Harrison et al, 2002.). You are a tool like an interactive whiteboard that appears to make possible to improve speed of delivery, communication and debate, and create a passion for both teachers and pupils (Passey et al, 2004.). For these authors, the needs of individual students can be better supported with potential teachers who realize the needs of ICT tools that can be used to meet the specific training needs. ICT is the possible access to the native speakers and their culture (Harris and Kington, 2002). Finally, multimedia resources approved the teachers to utilize visual, audio and text practices in the target language.
Technology has been supported in various ways to teach and learn, in the case of our study we will deal specifically with the school context, Marsh and others (2002) outlines a significant change in approach, methodology of teaching foreign languages in Europe over the last twenty years. The authors highlight the positive impact of the implementation of ICT in both teachers and learners on basic attitudes as a result of the changes and improvements in teaching and learning theories. Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), in particular, and the use of web for teaching and learning (WBT ) in a second place shape the two most recurrent and central research streamlines of present times.
A recent report by Becta (2004) is concerned with the use of ICT in teaching and learning. This report is based on an analysis of existing research on the utilization of ICT among primary and secondary teachers in teaching. Important findings is really affected, while the resources available to introduce ICT to teach FL is also mentioned. Therefore, ICT can contribute to education key skills listening, speaking, reading and writing through various ways:
Digital sources as the Internet, CD-ROM, database vocabulary and video clips that provide access to various kinds of information and learning opportunities.
Students can work at their own pace as the digital resources can be slowed down and played over and over again as the needs of individuals.
Access to authentic materials and communication with schools abroad through video conferences and e-mail discussion forum in the target language to facilitate cultural awareness
Multimedia presentation software enables a variety of English language skills into practice and to support multiple learning styles
Word-processing applications allow students to plan, organize and edit their work and develop skimming and scanning techniques
Digital video can offer feedback on pupils’ language performance for self-critique, teacher or peer evaluation
Personal interest in English can be encouraged by watching movies in DVD format with subtitles and multiple audio tracks in different languages
Despite these findings , most of the existing research provides case studies and models of teachers using ICT in their practices, and outlines the aspirational results . However, long-term academic studies should be taken into consideration in obtain reliable and clearer picture the benefits of ICTs ulitization in teaching and learning. Report of ICT Technologies in Foreign Language (ICC, 2003), which looked at current developments across Europe, stated that English is different from other subjects.
ICT can be used to support and develop all the skills in key curriculum English listening, speaking, reading and writing, often with overlap benefit of between them (TOP, 2001). Sources such as digital video can provide a successful way to maintain success in dominating the language in the classroom (Tschirner, 2001). Video conferencing has shown the benefits of listening and speaking (Harris 2002). Key skills required for teaching and learning are all provided by software applications such as interactive multimedia, video, CD-ROM dictionaries, digital voice recording and others, as it can be derived from Becta survey (2004). Furthermore other research also reported positive results for ICT in pupils'achievement. (Blow, 2001, TOP, 2001). ICT can help students become more confident and competent in their learning (Passey et al, 2004;. TOP, 2001). ICT can be brought in contact with native speakers and their culture, through digital means or by means of direct communication. E-mail, which is regularly used to pursue collaborative projects with schools, can support learning (Usher, 2001.
The usage of ICT eases pupils’ understanding of other cultural demonstrations, enabling them to value difference. Passey et al. (2004) state that " ICT also enables a multi-sensory approach to be exploited, potentially engaging pupils who would otherwise not explore their full potential". It is significantly prove that teachers and students to be acquainted with the equipment as they are going to it employ in order to take advantage from technology. Continuing professional development for Teachers (ICC, 2003) and the achievement of competencies on the use of ICT has becomes essential and key to reach a successful implementation and quality standards in teaching and learning processes. As mentioned earlier, ICT facilitate a range of helpful benefits. The achievement of success will depend on the capacity of ICT teachers as valuable pedagogical tool in the quest determined learning objectives.
In fact the range of ICT use in the field of language education is growing rapidly and enhance creativity and well adaptable by the professional language in utilizing new technology within their classrooms. Students acceptance in the use of new technologies in both formal and informal learning are also increase rapidly. (Godwin-Jones, 2005). The use of web quests, simulations, educational games and virtual field trips online also increased in stages (Pururshotma, 2005). Thus, the interaction between students and language technology can bring benefits for language learners. According to Zhao, and Cziko (2001) , there are three conditions necessary for teachers to introduce ICT into their classrooms; teachers should believe the effectiveness of technology, teachers must believe that technology will not cause interference, and finally the teacher must believe that they have the control over these technology.
Facilities in IT infrastructure have been steadily increasing in schools, colleges and universities in Malaysia. During the Eight Malaysia Plan (2001-2005), a colossal amount of RM5.2billion were spent on ICT-related Programmes and projects. However, there has not been a corresponding increase in ICT-integrated classroom activities used for the ultimate benefit of pupils. ICT integration pertaining to the teaching and learning of Bahasa Inggeris has been lagging behind compared to the teaching of Science and Mathematics. Research by Azizah ( 2005) undertaken by the faculty members of the National University of Malaysia in a quantitative study involving 188 students in 90 Smart Schools in Malaysia revealed a number of interesting findings . The teachers interviewed confirmed this fact. Further it was observed the English lessons frequently not carried out at the lab. Some of the reason Indicates that was only one functioning computer lab in the school and limits the opportunity to use the computers as the lab have to be shared with other classes as well as frequent server failure which disrupted lessons. Morover, the limited number of computers available for students' use at the schools have forced teachers to opt last resort by delivery hard copy teaching materials such as 'worksheets' or printed materials from the courseware and the Internet. The findings significantly revealed the Lack of sufficient deployment of information technology to these schools have not enabled the Smart School to function properly. (Azizah et al., 2005)
Besides is inherent resistance to the changes, schools are also has a structure that prevents the spread of a wide use of computers. Collins (1996) in a reflective essay about his experience with Apple Class of Tomorrow (ACOT) project to collect a limited class space and size of computers, reluctance of teachers to take students to the laboratory, and lack of access to computers at home as a factor restricting the use of technology schools (Cuban, 1986;. Smerdon et al, 2000) Perhaps another serious problem, however, it lies beyond the technology or the physical structure of the conceptual structure of the school as forty-five minutes learning period makes it difficult to achieve any substantial use of technology. (Collins, 1996.) Thus school structure has been the main obstacles in empowering new technologies for classroom learning (Means, 1994).
In addition, the introduction of computers requires serious paradigm shifted on the basic structure of schools (Collins, 1996; Hawkins & Sheingold, 1986; Means, 1994; Merrow, 1995). As a result, schools and teachers may be less enthusiastic by the promises of the computer delivered than its advocates.
One of the greatest concerns of teachers towards ICT has been that of acquiring the necessary knowledge and competence to cope with change. Despite this fact, many teachers consider they lack training in the usage of new media and the means of processing information, while aspects such as attitudinal and ideological contents have been left aside, difficulting to a great extent the development of critical and responsible attitudes towards ICT (Santandreu, 2004:11). Cabero, Duarte and Barroso (1997) suggest, the fact of having more equipment in the educational centres and the training that teachers receive is not enough to appreciate important changes in teaching and learning processes. Cabero (1998) states that most training has been developed according to technical and instrumental criteria, whereas other aspects such as references to their utilisation , organisation and didactic design have not been included.
According to Majó and Marquès (2002) the preparation and the competencies of teachers as a result of their training have to change due to the following facts:
The teacher has to cope with more complex situations in which students are more heterogeneous but more familiar with the different communication means.
The changes in the contents to be taught and the instruments to be used, bearing in mind ICT, the increasement in the functions to be developed by the teacher and the evolvement of didactic methodologies.
The need of a permanent lifelong learning and a constant updating of knowledge.
Cabero (1998) states that "the training plans that have been developed with a deep technical and esthetical background have not been useful to help teachers to integrate in the curriculum the didactic instruments and media and reveals them as serious problems which prevent a successful integration of ICT into teaching and learning processes. The lack of specific training on ICT addressed to teachers has obviously been the subject object of many comments by numerous authors.
In this sense, Correa (1999) states: "without training in the field of ICT, the school won’t be able to meet the challenge that Information Society is calling for. The objectives of this training is primarily to respond to the need that recent telematic tools are asking for, and develop a movement of pedagogical renewal which will enable a curricular integration of the new multimedia materials"
Majó and Marqués (2002) point out that the teacher’s readiness and capacity is after familiar factors as the most relevant clue to achieve success with students. Once these basic dimensions have been set up, and due to the lack of specific training for teachers regarding all the pedagogic changes that have been brought about by the irruption of new technologies, the same authors state that administrations should agree in stating certain basic competencies that all teachers should possess and constantly update and revise.
According to Rogers (1995) one of the main factors influencing public attitude towards this new technology are related to features of the technology itself. Rogers shows the five basic characteristics that influence technology acceptance, and subsequent adoption: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, observability, and trialibility. Thus, new technologies will be more spread out if the potential adopters consider that innovation: (1) has the advantage over previous innovations, (2) is compatible with existing practices, (3) is not complex to understand and use, (4) shows the results observed, and (5) may be experimenting with a limited prior to adoption
Teachers are the heart of the educational process. The greater importance attached to education as a whole, both for the transmission of culture for social cohesion and justice, or to the development of human resources so important in modern, technology-based economy, the higher is the priority that should be given to teachers who are responsible for that education (OECD) These challenges exist because teaching and learning is rooted in the human dimension. This means that we do not always act rationally, even when it may be a top priority for us to do so. In addition, there are so many challenges that teachers face such as lack of resources, crowded classes, and students are not motivated, not involved or more involved parents, colleagues and administrators who do not support non-sensitive (Kottler & Zehm 2000). Teaching is usually seen as a form of professional work, that is, the kind of complex work that requires a lot of specialized knowledge (Sykes, 1990). A positive attitude is essential for becoming a good teacher especially in handling with complex challenges and work constraints.
In utilizing ICT tools such as computer to achieve successful teaching and learning, teachers must have edequate knowledge and skills. Summer (1998) found that more than 50% of the respondent rated computer usage as very important and most teachers who are computer literate has a very vauge knowledge about computer usage. Bychowski, Deborah, Van and Ralp (1984) in their study of classroom computer usage shows that most of teachers surveyed feel that computer usage are highly important but they do not opt adequate knowledge and skills about computer which affected the success of ICT implementation with the classroom context.
The teacher will have to develop skill related to the learning contexts that changes in teaching and learning paradigms require Thus, the teacher’s role is multiplied and shifts from being a single transmitter of knowledge to become facilitator and guide of the learning process, integrator of new ICT media, researcher and designer of suitable learning scenarios, collaborator (with other teachers and students), orchestrator, learner and evaluator. An effective teacher has the knowledge of pedagogy.
According to Ozden, pedagogy is the science of teaching, instruction and training (Ozden, 2008). Pedagogy is a subject that all the student teachers in training colleges need to learn. Pedagogy and skills go hand in hand to achieve teaching success. Skills or techniques are therefore needed in order to carry out successful teaching. For that, teachers need pedagogical skills and other skills with them. Lufti, Gisbert and Fandos (2001:70) point out five main functions a teacher should compile: information consultant, group collaborator, facilitator, critical generator of knowledge and finally, academic supervisor.
Interestingly, despite the wide recognition of the underutilization of technology and the key role of teachers in the effective use of technology (Cuban, 1986 and 25Wenglinsky, 1998), "there has been relatively little research on how and why American teachers use technology" (OTA, 1995). There is even less research on why teachers do not use the technology. The bulk of research on educational technology has focused on the impact of technology on students. Several studies performed on a subset of teachers are usually focused on specific, the successful "accomplished" technology users (Sheingold & Hadley, 1993), rather than the majority, those who are not using technology.
ICTs prove expanding the access and strengthen the relevance of education to the increasingly digital workplace, and raise educational quality by, among others, helping make teaching and learning into an engaging, active process connected to real life. However, the effective integration and utilization of ICTs into the education system is a complex process involving various areas of the curriculum not only IT, but also pedagogy, institutional readiness, teacher competencies, and long-term financing, among others. (Haddad, Wadi D. and Jurich, Sonia, 2002).
Nevertheless, the main challenge factor affecting technology use in schools is associated with the teacher. (Rogers, 1995), mentions that teachers attitude toward the technology and expertise is often identified as key factors associated with their use of technology (Smerdon et al, M2000 and Zhao & Conway, 1999.). Unless teachers have positive attitudes toward technology, it is unlikely that he will use it to teach him. (Zhao & Cziko, 2001). Technology itself is also named as the source of a series of factors that influence its use by teachers. First, there are conflicting ideas about the technology and the proposal is contrary to the teacher about how technology should be used in schools (Cuban, 1999). This causes the teachers confuse about the values ​​of technology education. Second, the nature of the constant changes in technology make it difficult for teachers to stay alert with the latest technology. Every day new software and hardware is ready. Teachers, who have fought for their time and effort, it is difficult and discouraging to keep chasing this elusive beast. Third, the inherent nature of it could not be trusted to make technology less attractive to most teachers (Cuban, 1999, Zhao et al, 2002.) . Thus, there is strong reason to use technology and reliable support, teachers can choose not to use it in their teaching.
According to Rogers (1995) one of the main factors influencing public attitude towards new technology related to features of the technology itself. Rogers shows the five basic characteristics that influence technology acceptance and adoption of the next such as relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, observability, and trialibility.
In schools, the teachers should provide behavioral changes in the students. The teachers are expected to integrate their lessons with ICT in order to train the individuals of an information society. A number of studies were conducted to explore the relationship between ICT and the teacher (Moseley et al. 1999; Salamon 2000; McCannon & Crews 2000; Morales et.al. 2000; Fluck 2001; Zhao & Cziko, 2001; Granger et.al. 2002; Ainley et. al. 2002; Demetriadis et.al. 2003; Lin et.al. 2004; Ruthven et.al. 2004; Mooij, 2004). The findings of these studies revealed that although schools are focusing on ICT, the emphasis has often been on providing resources and not the pedagogies that will ensure the survival of the reform over the long term. In relation to the implementation of ICT, not only staffs need operate them, but also they must have an understanding of the pedagogy required to use them and to meet teaching and learning needs (Tearle 2004).
According to Fullan (1998), successfully implemented reforms require leaders to participate as active learners in dynamic changing environments. Hence, educational leaders can have a major impact on the success, coherence and sustainability of the change process. They must manage issues related to technology and the educational community (Jacobsen & Hunter, 2002). In a study of 18 schools in Hong Kong which introduced ICT across the curriculum, the way the technology was used, its impact on learning and teaching, "bore no relationship with the technology infrastructure or technical skills level of the teachers. Instead, it was very much determined by the vision and understanding of the school principal and the prevalent school culture." (Pelgrum & Law, 2003, p. 62). Leading change is therefore a key challenge for principals to face as the key agents of change. Yuen (2000) categorized schools which enthusiastically adopted ICT into teaching and learning into three predominant models of technology adoption.
The models differed according to particular critical characteristics shown in the integration process: he named them ‘technological adoption’; ‘catalytic integration’ and ‘cultural integration’ models. In the ‘technological adoption’ model school, the principal and the majority of staff viewed ICT as a tool to improve existing teaching practices, and increase efficiencies and student IT skills. The key obstacles to implementation in these schools are gaining the right hardware and software technology and developing the right infrastructure and curriculum resource materials. Yuen noted that in these schools, the impact of technology on teaching and student practices was minimal. The technology just confirmed existing presentations, predominantly through PowerPoint. (Lam & Lee, 2000) Schools that were characterized as ‘catalytic integration’ tended to have ‘visionary leadership’ and a history of continuous educational reform through engaging teachers in a learning process. In these schools, teachers are seen as members of a ‘learning organization’ (Senge, et al., 2000).
Principals in these schools view ICT as an opportunity to affect change through educational reform. ICT use was deliberate and designed as an integral part of the curriculum, consistent with the school ethos. The key focus in these schools was teacher development with strong support for curriculum leadership and development. These schools showed more student centered work, more innovative teacher practices, and were more likely to adopt innovative pedagogical practices such as collaborative problem-based learning tasks and projects. The school principal is the key agent of change, who has a clear vision and implementation strategy for ICT with the main elements being staff development focusing on curriculum tailoring and pedagogic innovation. In these schools, ICT helped advance curriculum reform initiatives already underway. The challenges for teacher in ‘catalytic integration’ schools are to rethink their attitudes, beliefs and understandings held about their roles as educators and to reconceptualize their understanding of schooling and society.
The ‘cultural integration’ model schools (Law, 2000) had a strong and distinctive school culture and a long history of supporting student-led initiatives. These schools had long established support for student-initiated work that aligned with the school ethos of selfactualization and lifelong learning. ICT in these schools was perceived mainly as an opportunity to provide a very powerful tool to support the empowerment of students and teachers. These schools had a long history of supporting individual choices. The teachers and students were not required to learn technical skills to use ICT. Rather, ICT adoption was encouraged through existing channels across the schools. In these schools, a wide range of ICT adoption was found from expository teacher-centered teaching to more student-centered social constructivist and collaboration work as well as using ICT as a cognitive tool. In fact in these schools rather than the school staff leading technical training, it was the student organizations that ran courses for fellow students to improve their ICT literacy skills. Schools adopting the cultural integration model used ICT to help promote the school vision and mission, though in many different ways. The differences lie in the different educational values and emphasis that are deeply rooted in the rich tradition and history of the schools in the study. Schools without such established traditions and culture would find it extremely difficult to integrate ICT into the curriculum in the same way that these schools do. On the other hand, DEST (2002) categorized schools according to their levels of ICT integration. They are as follows:
Type A: Encouraging the acquisition of ICT skills as an end themselves
Type B: Using ICTs to enhance students’ abilities within the existing curriculum
Type C: Introducing ICTs as an integral component of broader curricular reforms that Are changing not only how learning occurs but what is learned;
Type D: Introducing ICTs as an integral component of the reforms that alter the Organization and structure of schooling itself.
Many learning communities have accepted ICT at Type A or Type B level. Integration of ICTs at these levels has very little impact on curriculum frameworks and pedagogies. Type C and Type D level of integration differs in that it challenges learning communities at all levels to initiate and sustain reforms that not only modify but create new understandings, policies, structures and pedagogies that enable the potential of ICTs to be fully utilized. Emerging information technologies enable a shift from the transfer and assimilation of information to the creation, sharing, and mastery of knowledge (Dede, 1999). The implications for learning and teaching at this level need to be clarified and the values and beliefs that underpin educational practices need to be explored and challenged. This shift in thinking and approach may further contribute to the alignment of learning and teaching pedagogies so that the needs of learning communities can more adequately be addressed and catered for. Educational leaders need to acknowledge that in a dynamic climate training is essential if the change is to remain sustainable. Continuous learning at all levels within the community is important to help deal with the demands of evolving change (NCSL, 2001). Therefore, professional development programs that target the needs of the school community are essential if ICTs are to have a meaningful impact on learning (OECD, 2001).
Educational leaders are under increasing pressure to react to and manage issues related to
technology and the educational community (Jacobsen & Hunter, 2002). They will spearhead the processes of identifying the changes that are needed in their local contexts, engaging their respective communities in the change process and carrying through the adjustments that are needed (DETYA, 2001). Thus, school leaders play an important role in establishing technology as a part of school culture (Anderson & Dexter, 2000). In fact, leadership and ICT integration are multifaceted, complex processes that often require the questioning of practices and beliefs, the building of capacities and support networks that will assist the learning community make the transition to Type C and D (DEST, 2001) ICT integration. Educational leaders have to make decisions about both professional development opportunities for teachers and the acquisition of technology resources (Jacobson & Hunter 2003). Support for educational leaders is required to help ensure the success of ICT integration at Level C &D and the progress of school cultures in which expectations are clearly defined, and a commitment to change is made. Hence, the successful adoption of ICT to improve student learning requires effective leadership and planning (MCEETYA, 2005). Leaders need to be aware and capable of addressing associated issues competently and confidently.
In response to this question why some schools were more successful than others at implementing ICT. Hall, Rutherford, Hord, and Huling (1984) reported that principals used different styles to implement changes such as ICT in the school. They classified these styles as initiator, manager, and responder. Initiator principals publicly demonstrated a strongly held vision of where their schools were heading and what was best for students. They had high expectations of their staff, and they made these expectations clear through many forms of communication. Manager Principals focused on the administrative aspects of the school to ensure that it was well-organized and efficient. They tended to resist change until all components of the change were ready for implementation. Responder principals focused on current concerns of the staff and the school community without looking at the "bigger picture." They tended not to intervene as much as their counterparts. In simplistic terms, initiator principals "made it happen," managers "helped it happen," and responders "let it happen." This is supported by Schiller (1991) who applied the work of Hall et al. to the realm of computer education (Schiller, 1991). He found that principals who exhibited an initiator or a manager style were more likely to be successful in implementing computer education on their campuses because they were able to identify long-term goals , implement strategies for computer education, and devise specific day-to-day tactics to accomplish them.
Moreover they could persuade their staffs to accept computer education as a priority. Schiller (1991) added that initiator principals expected all teachers to become computer users in their classrooms. They stressed classroom applications of technology during staff meetings, organized staff training, ensured adequate time and resources for in-class computer use, and monitored every teacher's progress by reviewing instruction plans and other written materials. Therefore, initiator principals spent time in the classrooms, observing and talking with pupils and teachers as they used computers. They not only stressed staff participation in the process, but also sought parental involvement and support through parent workshops and meetings. These results show that the actions, attitudes and visions of leaders and administrators have the potential to greatly impact and influence the integration of innovations. Administrators who implement technology effectively in their schools and communities will contribute greatly to both education and the economy in the twenty-first century (Slowinski, 2000).
Thus, leaders need to have access to training programs, frequent practical experience and support structures that will enable them to develop the understandings, skills and resources that will lead to appropriate positive reform in their school setting.
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