Theories And Principles For Planning And Enabling Learning

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

Write an overview of the main ideas and principles of one theory of learning.

There should be evidence of reading and all such reading should be referenced.

My subject specialism is ESOL and I feel that adult learners bring a wealth of knowledge and cultural and social experience with them; therefore I have selected Social development theory of Vygotsky. As there is a great diversity in their educational backgrounds, levels and abilities, I think Vygotsky’s theory of social development can be applied to ESOL classroom. Applying this theory in my practice will; enable my students build on their existing knowledge and gain new knowledge through interaction with each other. I will look into the main ideas and principles of this theory and the practical implications in my subject specialism in ESOL.

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who lived during the Russian Revolution. His ideas of social aspects of learning have influenced the field of education as well as educational psychology. Between the years of 1913 and 1917, Vygotsky studied medicine, philosophy, history, and law. Social Development Theory of Vygotsky (1896-1934) states that social interaction precedes development. According to Piaget, development precedes learning whereas Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. (Learning-Theories, 2007-13) Vygotsky states: "Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)." (Vygotsky, 1978). According to his theory, social interaction has a significant effect on cognitive development; therefore instruction should aim at developing learning through internalization in social and cultural practice. He emphasized on the importance of past experiences and previous knowledge in gaining new knowledge or experiences as he believed that knowledge is gained through past experiences and social interactions. According to the article-The Educational Theory of Lev Vygotsky, One gains knowledge as one develops by way of social interactions with peers and adults.

Vygotsky’s theory is based on three themes: social interaction, the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Anyone with a better knowledge or ability than the learner is referred as the MKO and it could be a teacher, coach, peers, or even computers. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in Zone of Proximal Development which is the gap between a student’s ability to do a task with the assistance of the teacher or the peer and the student’s ability to solve the problem independently. Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) implies that a person becomes capable of solving problems when assisted by a more capable peer i.e. MKO.

Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning environment in which students interact with each other and assist each others in learning. The concept of the zone of proximal development requires an interaction between a more able person and a less able person to perform a task so that, through that interaction, the less able person becomes independently competent on that task. Cooper S (2009)  Vygotsky viewed learning as a process of scaffolding, or building upon prior knowledge where the teacher’s role is to provide scaffolding to collaborate with the students within their zones of proximal development. The teacher facilitates students to build on their current skills and knowledge by engaging their interest in manageable tasks in order to motivate students to achieve their goals.

I’d like to conclude Vygotsky’s views on learning with that a learner can develop a range of skills and achieve far better through group collaboration than working alone. He believed that development during the internalizing process i.e. the interpersonal stage (group discussion and activities) later became intrapersonal as a result of social interaction.

teaching strategies

Vygotsky theory proposes that learner learns best by interacting with others to solve a problem. At first, the teacher or the more competent peer interacts with the learner and eventually, the learner builds the skills and knowledge to do the task independently. This theory fits in ESOL classes very well because when ESOL learners come to classes, they bring with them knowledge, skills and prior experiences which they need to build on through interaction and social settings in the classrooms in order to develop their language skills so that they are capable of applying new knowledge and skills independently. Also, students should be encouraged to experiment with the language. The emphasis of Vygotsky’s ideas on social uses of language can be applied effectively in ESOL classroom. The task-based approach is relevant as it emphasises the importance of social and collaborative aspects of learning. The focus of task-based approach is on the interaction and collaboration among peers and how learners scaffold each other through interaction which is essential in Vygotsky’s concept of learning. For example, students can be pre-taught vocabulary and the sentence structures using realia such as post cards and also some examples of completed post cards on the smartboard and then they write postcards in groups or pairs. Students communicate with their peers to do the task. The teacher monitors their work but do not correct language while they are working.

The process of internalisation is important in ESOL classrooms. Vygotsky’s ideas suggests teachers to encourage their students to assisting each other to develop multiple skills that will enable them to deal with complex learning tasks independently. The concept of ZPD poses challenge for the teachers. The teacher must be aware of the limits of their students, therefore teach to the limits of their ZPD and no further. Learner’s ZPD should be determined through interaction between the learner and the teacher which helps the teacher to determine what the learner can do alone and what he/she needs help with to achieve.

The concept of scaffolding is very essential in ESOL as it implies that second language learners need coaching and explicit instruction in order to gain new knowledge and skills as these skills will greatly impact on their progress and improvement. For example, to enable the learners to read a text about daily routines, the teacher can scaffold the learning by building on prior knowledge about the topic through visuals or video clips, words or phrases and then sentence structures. This will build the schema and enable the learners to better understand the text. The teacher can read-aloud the text using pictures to help learners improve comprehension skills through both listening and reading. The text must be selected carefully to match the students’ levels and needs and to scaffold visual learners; copies of the text with pictures can be given while the teacher reads. Scaffolding instructions enable the learner to build on previous knowledge and internalize new concepts.

In Vygotskian perspective, the teacher’s role is to provide scaffolding to assist students on tasks within their zones of proximal development. Learning tasks should be easy and manageable and modelled by the teacher. Learners should be given opportunities to understand and carry out the tasks with the help of more knowledgeable peers before being left on their own. Some of the learners are not able to handle the tasks independently, particularly at the early stages of their learning.

Instruction should challenge the learner’s actual development level. The theory emphasizes that function of language is developed by using it socially i.e. learning is a collaborative achievement and not an isolated individual’s effort. (Olenka Bilash, 2009) Communicative language teaching method can also be used to enable learners to develop functions of language. David Wilkins suggests that language learning should be meaningful as well functional. For example, learners can do a role-play returning a faulty item. The teacher can create a situation by providing some faulty objects such as missing page/button, broken zip, cracked mug etc and let learners use the language for a purpose.

The theory believes collaboration during instruction helps learners to understand and see the benefits of social interactions to an individual’s cognitive and linguistic development. Learners can develop and improve their knowledge and skills with the guidance of the teacher or in peer collaboration than alone. Lev Vygotsky, like Bandura and Chomsky, views social learning within a set environment, where learners act as motivators and guides to support each other to get to their potential achievement. Mentoring, collaboration, and peer relations are the key factors to development for example, for an ICT activity where learners practice finding a bus timetable with ticket prices, learners can work in mixed ability pairs where more experienced learner can act as a monitor or a supporter for the learner with little knowledge of using the Internet.

Appropriate assistance from the teacher enable learners to perform the tasks which they are incapable of completing on their own and therefore scaffolding is an effective form of teaching where the teacher continually provide appropriate help and guidance in response to the learner’s level and ability. Scaffolding not only produces effective results, but also produces necessary independent problem solving skills. To teach how to fill in a form, it is important to teach the vocabulary and the terminology e.g. first name, title, gender and the context e.g. capitals. The teacher shows a completed form and then models it by filling in a form on the smatboard.

(Wikipedia) The intensive oral language component in Reciprocal Teaching is Vygotskian. Reciprocal Teaching is an application of Vygotsky's theory which improves students' ability to learn from text. In this method, teacher and students collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. Initially, the teacher takes the responsibility to introduce and model the skills and gradually learners take over the responsibility to practice these skills in groups or pairs. The teacher first introduces and models these four skills so that the students are familiar with them. For example, the teacher reads a text about a familiar topic such as a biography and then models summarizing the main points, clarifying parts of the texts or difficult words, asking ‘wh’ questions and asking what do you happened next. Gradually, students practice these skills with each other in groups which not only develop their listening, speaking and reading skills, but also promotes collaboration and enables students monitor their own learning and thinking.

resources,

Vygotsky believed that learning through socialization helped people grow. (Connell S and Charles P) According to Vygotsky, socialization also means communicating with others to gain access to the intellectual life of those around us. One of the principles of Vygotsky’s theory is that (Chen I, ebook) the ZPD can serve as a guide for curricular and lesson planning. Learners may not be able to carry out the task on their own at an earlier stage but demonstrate the potential to carry out the task and develop their skills and knowledge if provided with appropriate assistance from the teacher and the peers. ICT based resources such as proofread tasks or Internet search for a flight and a hotel in mixed ability pair (more competent and less competent) help students work in collaboration and help each other.

Teaching instruction must provide meaningful learning experiences and technology can help in many ways to provide and facilitate learning experiences in a meaningful context. For example, students can use the Internet for online search in pairs or small groups to find jobs, shopping or booking holidays. As most of the ESOL learners are looking for jobs, they can interact with ICT to enhance their employability skills.

The zone of proximal development is the difference between what a learner can do on his/her own and what his/her can do with the help of the teacher or a more-knowledgeable peer. The teacher’s role is to assist (scaffold) the emerging competencies of the students until they are able to perform the tasks on their own. The dialogue between the teachers and the students ensures that students understand the tasks, and enable the students to reflect on experiences. The teacher can provide small manageable tasks which the learner can do independently e.g. underline nouns in the texts. The teacher provides support until the learner understands the use of adjectives to describe nouns and is capable of doing the task independently. The students can also work in collaborative groups with peers who have already demonstrated understanding of the tasks and concepts. A task based resource, for example designing a poster about an event in pairs or small groups after acquiring the vocabulary, language and other features, can scaffold the learner. The theory states that the task must be at a level just above the learners’ current level of understanding. The task must challenge what they already know and expand their knowledge with appropriate help.

To incorporate Vygotsky's social development theory into the classroom, teachers need to design social activities to encourage socialization through heterogeneous group activities. The teacher should design group or pair activities aiming at encouraging students to learn collaboratively and learn from their peers. Students can work collaboratively in mixed ability groups, regardless of gender, age and ethnic background, and talk about their past journey in order to practice questioning skills and the use of the past tense. Matching descriptions with the pictures in pairs or small groups encourage learning through socialization. The teacher gives clear instructions and initiates the tasks, and then students discuss or carry out the tasks through social interaction with peers. Social learning environment gives students opportunities to demonstrate their understanding and improve communication competence. Moreover students build and develop new knowledge and skills through interaction with others. It’s more effective to let students experiment and have a free social interaction rather than a formal structured interaction.

ICT is an essential tool to encourage social interaction among the students. ICT based research or tasks e.g. comparing prices or grammar exercises in groups or pair can promote effective team work in a social learning environment and enabling students to communicate and learn from each other to solve problems. ICT can be applied in many ways to promote social learning environment. Interacting with technology will enhance communication and contact. Interactive games such as quizzes available on ‘Talent` website create stimulating learning environment by encouraging learners to work collaboratively with others.

Seating arrangements e.g. round tables or quads can encourage social interaction. Students should be able to reflect learning outside the classroom. Cooperative learning makes students feel safe and comfortable which motivates them to experience learning in a friendly atmosphere. Through collaboration, students practice expressing themselves and listening to others. For example, for sequencing a story or instructions, students get the opportunity to use the language to express themselves which, I feel, prepares them for the society and reflect their learning. Social interaction among the students has a significant impact on the development and progress. Some learners lack the confidence to speak in the classroom and also outside world and if they are not given the opportunities to work in social settings, they will feel isolated and therefore this will have a negative effect on their learning and achievement. Cooperative learning, for example a role-play where a more able learner asks the questions and the less able learner gives information, helps develop good relationships between students.

assessment methods,

(funderstanding, 2012) Assessment methods must take into account the zone of proximal development. What learners can do without help is their actual development level and what they can do with guidance and encouragement is their level of potential development. Two learners despite having the same level of actual development might demonstrate different level of abilities in solving the problem when given the appropriate help from the teacher. Assessment methods must take into account both the level of actual development and the level of potential development. There are numerous assessment methods used for assessing learning in group work and these methods can include tutor marking individual work, peer assessment or marking, various questioning techniques and also direct observation. Peer assessment helps students develop skills of working effectively in a group. For example, for a comprehension task, the teacher can observe how the students work together and also assess learning by asking a variety of questions while they are working on the task. Vygotsky’s theory views the importance and impact of scaffolding instructions on development of learning.  During scaffolding activities, the teacher can use questions to assess students’ understanding or ask them to demonstrate learning. The teacher can monitor student responses to assess if the students understand the task or the concepts.

inclusive learning

(The Educational Theory of Lev Vygotsky ) Vygotsky also commented on the education of children with disabilities. According to him, children with disabilities should be educated in the "normal" classroom, not in separate classrooms because he felt that those children who were educated separately from "normal" children" would proceed in a totally different, and not beneficial, manner". This model promotes full inclusion. In my class, there’s a learner with hearing difficulty and I provide opportunities for that learner to work collaboratively with other learners as well as written instructions with extra support and guidance. Vygotsky sees the classroom as a social organization where learners (regardless of gender, age, abilities, levels and cultural backgrounds) interact and help each other through exchange of ideas and knowledge.

Clearly the Vygotskian classroom promotes inclusive learning through cooperative learning activities. Social models require learners to collaborate and learn together; they help learners construct new knowledge and understand concepts. The concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) implies that a person becomes capable of solving problems when assisted by a more capable peer i.e. MKO, therefore, full social interaction among heterogeneous groups during ZDP promotes inclusive learning environment because the main idea for creating mixed ability groups is to encourage the less able learners to develop new knowledge and skills. The teacher should be aware of the fact that all students have their own individual abilities, interests, strengths, weakness and learning styles. Understanding students and providing differentiated scaffolding until they are able to work independently will enhance their progress considerably. For example, for a reading comprehension group activity, I provide enlarged handouts for a learner with short eye-sight to ensure inclusive learning environment. Structured planning should include a variety of ways to present materials (visual, realia and multimedia), peer and team work, link learning to real-life situations, access to technology and provide a range of opportunities for students to interact with each other.

Including a variety of teaching and learning approaches and resources e.g. scaffolding, communicative language approach, task-based learning and reciprocal teaching can make a significant difference to learning environment enabling all learners to successfully engage in their learning and the process of learning becomes more inclusive which supports widening participation and increases achievement.

The possible impact on the progress and achievement of learners.

In Vygotsky’s view, learning occurs through social interaction. It is important for the teacher to identify learners ZPD through careful observation and negotiation and therefore, plan instruction to provide opportunities for students to learn through social interaction. Group work and peer tutoring will make learning environment interesting, meaningful and engaging for all students. Using a variety of teaching techniques to foster Vygotsky’s ideas of social learning increases student motivation, enhances learning and therefore, raises students' achievement. The aim is to enable students to realise their learning potential and build on their knowledge and skills, so that students stay motivated and feel successful in their learning.

Vygotsky’s theory is based on three themes: social interaction, the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). (The Educational Theory of Lev Vygotsky) One gains knowledge as one develops by way of social interactions with peers and adults. ESL students experience difficulties with social interactions because they don’t have the language skills and the communicative competence to interact with people in the classroom as well as in the society they live in. Therefore they need opportunities to develop their knowledge and social skills. (Petty, 2004) Cooperative learning creates a safe, trusting and social learning environment, which promotes positive social interactions and also encourages shy students to contribute to the group. The outcomes have a positive impact on the progress and achievement of the learners. During collaborative activities, I observe students fully engaged in learning, sharing ideas and supporting each other in learning and these interactions produces amazing results in their achievement. Learners listen to each other which builds strong relationships among learners and also improves their behaviour. Students can gain skills more easily by interacting with each other.

Differentiated and individualized scaffolding activities planned according to the level of the students motivate learners and boosts their confidence as the help and guidance from the teacher reduces the frustration level. Helping peers not only motivates the learner but also develops confidence in his/her abilities. Scaffolding not only produces effective results, but also develops independent problem solving skills which the learners need to be able to work on their own in future.

Task 3

Discuss your own strengths and development needs in relation to the ideas discussed in Tasks 1 and 2. What steps will you take to develop your own practice in connection with these ideas?

(300 words)

As a teacher, I ensure that my teaching and learning methods promote a meaningful learning environment in which students fully participate through interactions with each other and the materials. I strongly feel that group work increases motivation and builds strong relationships between students which has a very positive effect on learning. I believe that if learning is interesting, meaningful and successful, and the teacher values their learners, it establishes good relationship between the teacher and the student. From careful observation, I identify both levels of the students i.e. what the learner can do independently and what the learner can achieve with help and in order to help students to learn and achieve their potential, I implement different approaches to teaching and a variety of activities and resources in my planning. The social development theory of Vygotsky offers useful suggestions to foster social aspects of learning based on three themes which are: social interaction, the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). In this regard, I ensure I provide cooperative and scaffolding activities so that students’ learning potential can be achieved with the right amount of help and guidance from the teacher and also through interacting with other students and peer support. I feel that appropriate seating arrangement is also very important in group activities as the students should be able to make eye contact with each other. Although I implement group activities, I would like to explore different types of group activities and I intend to read a book by Geoff Petty ‘Teaching Today, 2004’. .

Most of the students strive to improve their oral communication skills to enable them to improve their social skills and to cope with day to day life situations. One of the teaching methods, I use to provide students with the opportunities to improve their communication competence, is Communicative Language approach. As a teacher, I am very aware of my own body language as well as students and I often use eye contact, smile, and move around to communicate and convey messages to students. Although I use a variety of questioning techniques and also let students to practice questioning skills, I feel that I need to explore more ways of assessing learning using levelled questions such as knowledge, comprehension and application questions as suggested by Reece and Walker (2003). I’d also like to develop and explore more ways of getting student feedback. In order to develop my own practice, I would like to do more reading and attend staff development sessions such as teaching and learning master class sessions by Geoff Petty. I intend to read a book by Susan Wallace, Teaching and Supporting Learning in Further Education 2001.

Referencing:

TETA 1028 Theories and Principles for Planning and Enabling Learning, study guide, University of Greenwich, Yana Tainsh, Samina Qureshi-Constable, July 2011

TPPEL Reading 1.3 guidelines for observation of teaching Page 218-226

TPPEL Reading 3:1 ‘Individual differences and learning’

Flexible Mode Trainee Handbook 2011/12, University of Greenwich July 2011

Petty, G (2004) Teaching Today – a practical guide (3rd edition), London: Nelson Thornes

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