Evaluation Of Substance Abuse Among The Youth

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Background information

Psychoactive substances are chemicals that affect the central nervous system, altering the user’s thoughts, moods and behaviors. The revised third edition of the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-III-R); American psychiatric association (APA), 1987 categorizes psychoactive substances into ten classes; alcohol; amphetamines or simply acting symphathomimetics; cannabis; cocaine; hallucinogens; inhalants; nicotine; opioids; phenycyclinide; (PCP) or similarly acting arycyclohexylamines; and sedatives, hypnotics or axioliyics. Each of the substances abused has unique properties and effects, (David et al, 1999).

Most people will use drugs at some time in their lives. Indeed the consumption of psychoactive substances is a daily ritual for majority of individuals. The most frequently consumed drug is caffeine, in the form of coffee, tea, cocoa, chocolate, and soft drinks. But alcohol and tobacco are also regularly employed. Illicit substances such as cocaine, cannabis and heroin are far less frequently used (David et al, 1999).

Globally, since the 19th century, the consumption of substance like cocaine, which was initially sold over the counter medication, became strictly regulated due to misuse by the clients who had become addicted to it (Fred D. et al, 1993). Restrictions further were imposed on alcohol when it was found to be the cause of family breakups, violence and poverty among the Americans. Shipment of cocaine, which was initially thought to be a black man’s drug rose significantly in the early 20th century. When it was burned however, illegal shipment ensued but that was not accounted for. In the United States, consumption of alcohol accounts at least 433,987 deaths per year and it costs the United States approximately 70$ million dollars annually to treat cases that involve substance abuse (Fred D. et al, 1993).

Nationally, substance abuse has been a major problem that has affected the youths. According to the Kenya National Assembly official record (April 2007), the Kenyan government was aware of the damage caused to the youth through use of drugs and other chemical substances; they were aware further that the National Agency for the Campaign Against Drug Abuse (NACADA) has for many years, without making much difference, try to stop substance abuse. The world is also aware, according to the International Narcotics Control strategic report volume 1 that Kenya is a significant transits country for cocaine and heroin and a minor producer of cannabis for the domestic market. The production of khat, legal in Kenya and for export to England and the Netherlands, brings the country an estimated 18 million Kenyan shillings per day. Another drug, muguka, is produced and consumed around the central and Nairobi region. The most commonly used drugs include the following: alcohol, marijuana, nicotine, cocaine and heroin (David M. et al 1999).

According to David et al (2003), alcohol has been an integral part of human culture since the beginning of civilization with the earliest known piece of writing mentioning a clay tablet found in the Middle East. Alcohol consumption and abuse account for a large percentage of road accidents, domestic violence and crime. However, alcohol is used to commemorate important social milestones, is a lubricant for many personal and professional interactions, and has some proven medicinal benefits. Still, despite these more positive associations, the effects of alcohol abuse are devastating. Even the monetary cost of alcohol abuse both to society and individuals, cannot be underestimated. The effects of alcohol fall into three categories, acute effects, chronic effects and withdrawal. There are many effects of acute intoxication and long term use. Initially small amounts of alcohol produce a feeling of relaxation and well being; motor performance and thinking ability are slowed, but only subtly. At higher doses, motor and cognitive impairments increase and judgment is also impaired. The motor effects at higher doses can include slurred speech, diminishment of coordination, unsteady gait, and nystigmus (uncontrolled movement of the pupils). Memory also suffers and at high enough doses blackouts can occur. This memory includes all forms of memory including short term, long term recall, and acquisition. Chronic effects include the effects to the nervous system, causing significant, permanent cognitive impairment and memory problems. It causes difficulties with the peripheral nervous system causing problems with the digestive system, which is gastric ulcers, liver damage being the most serious effect of alcohol on the gastrointestinal system. It induces a general depression of the immune function and an alcoholic is much more likely to acquire infections. Alcohol affects almost every organ system in the body either directly or indirectly (National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIAAA, 1990 P 107) it cause damage to the endocrine system, and also the cardiovascular system (Miller and Munoz, 1976). Withdrawal refers to the phenomenon that occurs when an individual who has become dependent upon alcohol attempts to quit, or in some cases cut down. Tremendous anxiety, agitation and increased blood pressure can all occur.

Marijuana refers to dried out leaves, flowers, stems and seeds of the hemp plant, cannabis sativa. The plant is a common weed that grows freely in most areas of the world. It is probably the most commonly abused substance in the world with estimates in the hundreds of millions daily users (Pedro R. et al, 2007). It is typically smoked, although it can also be ingested. According to Weiss & Millan (1991), in spite of its generally sedating effects, marijuana’s psychoactive effects in the users are quite varied. They are profoundly dependent upon the personality of the user, his or her expectation and the setting, (page 160). The health effects of marijuana have been widely debated and remain quite controversial, probably due to inconsistent effects of the drug on the individual user and across users. For some time marijuana was considered relatively safe and non-addictive (Brecher, 1973) presently however, it is associated with multiple adverse physical and psychological effects including labile effects, depression, a motivational syndrome, impaired short term memory and pulmonary disease (Weiss & Millan, 1991). Cannabis intoxication commonly heightens the user’s sensitivity to external stimuli, thus making color seem brighter and smells more pungent. It also distorts, sometime severely the user’s sense of time. At least in low doses, it causes mild euphoria and feelings of relaxation. It is also known to increase appetite. At higher doses, and with chronic patterns of use, cannabis can induce panic attacks. Hyper-vigilance, sometimes resembling frank paranoia, is seen with higher doses. Cannabis induced psychosis is rare but does occur.

Cigarette smoking, according to Weiss & Millan (1991), is by far the single most preventable cause of death. It contains nicotine, the substance responsible for addiction. Cigarette smoking is a direct contributor to the development of cancer, lung and heart disease, and many other illnesses (Michael R. 2002) smokers usually complain that cessation of smoking causes tremendous increase in appetite and body weight. The reason being that when an individual uses cigarette, it leads to gradual loss of appetite and body weight and therefore stopping it use causes the opposite (David M. et al, 1999).

Cocaine is a substance of the rich. It comes in a whitish powder form, and a cheaper solid called cork. It has a very strong addiction and users suffer strong withdrawal symptoms when they do not access the drug on time (David M. et al, 1999).

The role of genetics cannot be forgotten when the subject of drug abuse comes to mind. As far as the ancient Greeks, there were arguments about what was learned and what was inherited. It took Charles Darwin thirty years to gather the courage and stamina to publish his origin of species, which formulated the theory of evolution. The same debate about the role of genetics has raged on in the field of substance abuse. It has become increasingly clear that genetics has a significant yet somewhat ambiguous relationship to substance abuse in the population. In the past, people believed that drunkenness was as a result of weak character, a vice or the work of the Devil. It is now abundantly clear that the genes an individual inherits interacts in a complex way with his/her environment and in many cases predispose an individual to substance abuse condition (David M. et al 1999). Numerous studies have found out that the rate of alcoholism are substantially higher in relatives of alcoholics than in non-alcoholics, with children of alcoholics demonstrating a four to fivefold increased risk for developing the disorder. This increased risk appears to be relatively specific for alcoholism (Pedro R. et al 2007).

Alcohol and substance abuse has been on the rise in the late 20th century and the start of the 21st century (Pedro R. et al, 2007). Illegal drugs are also on the rise in the streets and the abuse has tremendously affected the youth who are the main abusers of these substances. The effects so devastating, both financially and health wise but still, substance abuse is on the rise The government is always making laws stricter each day and heavy penalties are given to those found guilty of possessing illegal drugs (Pedro R. et al, 2007). In Kenya, there is the Mututho law that was formed by an act of parliament to curb the heavy drinking in the country, [Kenya National Assembly official record (2011)]. NACADA (National Agency for the Campaign against Drug Abuse) is the Non Governmental Organization (N.G.O) that is given the mandate to carry out campaigns against alcohol and substance abuse.

Research problem

Substance abuse has been on the rise since the late 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century (Pedro R. et al, 2007). Both men and women abuse drugs with men carrying a higher percentage in that number (David M. et al, 1999). According to David (1999), the financial implication on the users does not prevent them from the continued use of these substances of abuse.

The government of Kenya has imposed strict penalties for those who are found drunk while driving (Kenya gazette December, 2012), but still the people are using these substances of abuse. The Kenyan Government in collaboration with other nations is also trying to reduce the transit of cocaine and heroin in the coastal region (Kenya National Assembly official record, 2011).

The N.G.O’s around Kenya are also trying to campaign against alcohol and substance abuse for the youth who make up the majority of the Kenyan population. National Agency for the Campaign against Drug Abuse (NACADA) is the main N.G.O that mobilizes the youth to refrain from the use of these substances of abuse. It has branches all over the major cities like Nairobi that handles these issues related to substance abuse.

This is why the researcher, in evaluating substance abuse in Kiwanja Market, wanted to find out: the causes of increased substance abuse among the youths of K.M in the past 5 years; if the government of Kenya, through the police is helping to curb the problem of substance abuse in Kiwanja Market; and finally, if NACADA (National Agency for the Campaign against Drug Abuse), and other N.G.O’s are helping the youths of Kiwanja Market in the fight against substance abuse.

Significance of study

The health of the youth in Kenya is a critical area of enquiry because it involves the future of the nation. Substance abuse is hazardous to the youth and brings them ill health that results from addiction, dependency, tolerance of these substances of abuse and even death in heavy doses (David M. et al, 1999).

Information is required to establish why the youth are increasingly drawn to the use of these substances. These will help find the causes of this increased prevalence and therefore manage the epidemic from a factual point of view. The area chosen for the study was expected to give insight to this problem because majority of the residents in this location are youths between the ages of 19 to 26 years. Many of them are university students from the neighboring Kenyatta University. The area also has a police station and who help to maintain law and order among other functions of the police unit.

This study will be useful in helping the government and other stake holders with an insight to the reason why there is increased recruitment of non-substance abusers to substance abusers among the youth. It will also help the government, through the police to curb this increased substance abuse and finally evaluate the effectiveness of National Agency for the Campaign against Drug Abuse (NACADA) and other N.G.O’s in preventing the youth from using substances of abuse. This study will also help the government determine the seriousness of this problem and come up with better ways of controlling this problem of substance abuse.

Research questions

What are the causes of increased alcohol and substance abuse among the youth in Kiwanja Market?

Why has the government of Kenya failed to manage the epidemic of substance abuse?

Whys is the National Agency for the Campaign against Drug Abuse (NACADA) and other N.G.O’s failed to make an impact in the fight against alcohol and substance abuse?

Research objectives

General objective

To determine the causes of increased substance abuse among the youth of Kiwanja Market.

Specific objectives

To find out the causes of increased substance abuse among the youth in Kiwanja Market.

To find out if the police in Kiwanja Market are helping to curb the problem of substance abuse.

To find out if the National Agency for the Campaign against Drug Abuse (NACADA) and other N.G.O’s are helping to solve the problem of substance abuse in Kiwanja Market.

Assumptions

The youth in Kiwanja Market are aware of the increase in the use of substances of abuse.

The police in Kiwanja Market are trying their best to curb the problem of substance abuse.

The National Agency for the Campaign against Drug Abuse (NACADA) and other N.G.O’s are helping to solve the problem of substance abuse in Kiwanja Market