The Increasing International Communication

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

Consequently, the objective of this paper is to determine whether national culture is still influential in shaping HR and training practices. The assignment first gives a brief overview of globalisation and its driving forces while section two gives a definition and background information on international communication while highlighting its increasing dominance in the global world. Section three defines national culture and lays out the theoretical dimensions of national culture as identified in CLMS literatures and other sources to determine national culture influence on HR practices. Throughout the assignment where reference is made to HR practices, this will include training, and development. The assignment will conclude by showing that while some form of convergence of HR practices is taking place, national culture remains a pervasive influence in other areas of HR practices and if ignored can have implications for those in MNCs.

Theorists of the globalisation process purport that in the global society, experiences can no longer be restricted to the national context as Giddens (1989) puts it, "globalisation decisively conditions individual fate, nation states are no longer the important social organisation and the borders between them are no longer seen as solid as they were once". Characteristically, globalisation includes the amalgamation of worldwide trades into one global economy and modifying of local relationships to global ones (CLMS, M3 U1). With increasing cultural and social awareness, it diminishes the importance of geographical distance to economic transactions and global communications rather than social and economic interdependencies (CLMS, M3 U1).

Convergence theorists, regard ‘globalization as breaking down barriers, as a collective, homogenise society, creating uniformity for a universal culture’, thereby making it possible for accessibility and developments in a free market (CLMS, M3 U1) and Kerr et al (cited in CLMS, M3 U4, S1). With the rise of international communication systems, the assumption is that individuals would live, and work in some form of ‘global village’ or ‘network society’ (CLMS, M3 U1), where interaction takes place via information and communication technology over geographical distances. This they see as progress towards a ‘new world order’ giving greater freedom, diversity, social and cultural awareness and democracy, universal the best way to achieve common objectives for everyone (CLMS, M3 U1-4).

In contrast, the divergence critics argued that globalisation is harmful and rather than promoting democracy it undermines freedom and national identity (CLMS, M3 U1:4) and Crocket (2001). Tehranian (1997) concurred that ‘it is blurring technological, economic, political and cultural boundaries’ since independent technologies like the telephone, telegraph, satellites and other areas are combining with multimedia.’ This group believes that we do not live in a globalised society, where homogeneity is the norm and everyone is happily interconnected, rather there are differences that will always exist Hofstede in (CLMS, M3 U1). Therefore, from their perspective, it is unrealistic to assume that full homogenisation will develop. Hofstede concludes that, while practices may appear similar on some levels, different cultures will experience things differently (ibid)). Therefore, the influence of national culture should not be taken lightly since the accumulation of cultural diversity will not disappear (ibid).

What the literatures have shown is that with globalisation comes the reality of advancement in international communication, which has enabled individuals from various cultures to communication and share information through various means in a culturally diverse society (CLMS, M3 U1). Moreover, as the forces of globalization accelerate, there is a need to consider it in relation to national culture, which in the new global economy, is central for everyone operating in multinational corporations (MNCs) (CLMS, M3 U1). Therefore, shaped by the shifting tide of technology, globalisation has cultural implications, which then become significant.

Increasing international communication

Through globalisation, the world has become interconnected and international communication (IC) has contributed by creating mass communication networks (CLMS, M3 U1). To establish the context for the next section, an overview of ‘international communication’ and ‘increased IC’ is provided.

Referred to as an ‘expanding communication space’ by Volkmer (1999) and ‘global communication’ in (CLMS, M3 U1:11), there is no clear definition for international communication. However, literatures viewed it as ‘a process through which information and data flow freely between international borders using various ICT media and can take place between people and government of varying nationalities and cultural backgrounds’, (ibid).

Shaped by changing developments in communication, transportation and increasing technologies particularly satellites and the internet, globalisation has with its vast phenomenon, enabled developing countries and remote areas once cut off without access to technology and electricity (CLMS, M3 U1-4), to communicate, share information and improve personal and social space in the IC revolution. Therefore, it has become fundamental in the lives of people across the world Madikiza and Bornman (2007), and more advanced technologies have since crossed cultures, borders, time and space and is helping to make IC more efficient for MNCs level (CLMS, M3, U1).

With emerging forms of advanced ICT such as mobile devices, Skype, cloud computing, and smart phones all being used to share and exchange information internationally, people of different cultures are talking to each other at the touch of a button. Hence, the resulting transformation of IC in the media is unprecedented (CLMS, M3 U1). Television media like The BBC and CNN have also profoundly reshaped the face of IC in the 21 century by providing ‘instant’ information and broadcasting live first hand and up-to-date news programmes around the world to different cultures Tehranian (1997).

We are truly experiencing a shift in technology and IC that have enabled diversification, shaped MNCs and influenced changes in HR practices at local, regional and international levels Constantinou et al (2008) and (CLMS, M3 U1). This has resulted in the emergence, and integration of MNCs becoming the dominant force behind corporational change processes expanding outside their own region into unfamiliar foreign territories (CLMS, M3 U4:19). With this comes the complexity of intercultural difference in areas of languages which is seen as ‘the main stem of culture’, beliefs, values and behaviours (CLMS, M3 U1-4). What appears culturally acceptable in one setting might be misinterpreted in another (ibid).

Hence, an awareness of cross-cultural communication (verbal and non-verbal) differences is vital. Issues of non-verbal communication cues such as body language and gestures that are culturally bound – unique to the particular culture can sometimes be misunderstood when operating at international levels and should not be underestimated (CLMS, M3 U1:13). Cited in Shachaf (2008) Barna concurs ‘one of the reasons intercultural communication fails to create mutual understanding is due to a lack of understanding of non-verbal cues because people from different cultures communicate differently and have their own style’.

Consequently, all these issues influence organisational efficiencies and require sound and sensitive HR practices. One thing is certain; the globalised world shaped by IC, is a mover and shaker and has a profound impact on national culture Volkmer (1999). Hence, the next section will discuss whether national culture has any influence on HR practices.

National culture definition and background

Culture is all around us and influences daily living; consequently, the issue of national culture is another complex area and can be studied at different levels - national, organisational, individual, religion, gender (CLMS, M3 U4). With the economic downturn, we are seeing businesses being transferred into international fields and managers have to face the challenges of dealing with the culturally diverse staff in their corporations. This generated interest in cultural anthropology studies, particularly in areas of values and attitudes (CLMS, M3 U4) yet, despite culture being a widely used term, years of studies in this area, have not provided a universal definition, and as such, culture has many meanings and definitions depending on which context it is used in (ibid).

Definition and meaning

Beck and Moores (1985) and Hofstede (Cited in CLMS, M3 U1) see culture as "the values, beliefs and assumptions learned in early childhood that distinguish one group of people from another", which is in line with Hofstede’s (1991) reference to ‘software of the mind’. While Adler (2002) sees, ‘Culture is a way of life of a group of people, with more or less stereotyped patterns of learned behaviours which are handed down from generation to generation through means of language and imitations.’

CLMS, M3 U1 cites Kluckhohn (1951) as the first anthropologist to argue the case for a universal category of culture. His consensus of anthropological definition is "Culture consists in patterned ways of thinking, feeling and reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artefacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas, especially their attached values." These definitions show that cultural variables that influence HR practices could become relevant at any stage of values, beliefs and assumptions. Consequently, organisational culture is based on patterns of shared beliefs and assumptions that influence HR practices accordingly Schein (1992) cited in Aycan et al (2000).

Hofstede (1991) is the individual most renowned and cited for work on culture from a divergence perspective. In his research, he invariably referred to national culture as ‘mental programming’ and ‘software of the mind’ (cited in CLMS, M3 U1: 3-4) which is now commonly used amongst social anthropologists. His actual definition of culture is, ‘the collective programming of the mind distinguishing members of one group or category of people from another’ (ibid) which he admits is a modified version of Kluckhohn’s (1951) definition. It is clear to Hofstede that culture does matter as he went on to suggest that individuals share a collective national personality. This represents their cultural mental programming developed early in childhood, and as growth and development take place; the immediate environment reinforces this personality (CLMS, M3 U1) which in turn shapes values which are also shared by the community and seen in beliefs, expectations, perceptions and behaviour (ibid).

Whilst several areas of Hofstede’s explanation hold true, a concern with culture as a ‘collective mental programming’ suggests that it is difficult to change one’s culture since this would involve changes in the patterned ways of thinking, feeling and reacting that crystallised within the society and in the traditions that permeate religion, education, law and family relations Hofstede (2001). Therefore, it is unlikely that any change will ever happen (Cited in CLMS, M3 U1:14). Furthermore, "mental programming" gives the impression that individual’s thoughts and feelings are controlled like robotic machines and have no freedom in what they do (CLMS, M3 U1 S4). In defence, Hofstede hastened to say that he was not implying that everyone in a society is programmed that way, there are unique differences that exist between individuals and should be appreciated (CLMS, M3 U1). This raise the point as to whether awareness can be developed to appreciate your own culture and be critical of it, while appreciating how others look at things.

What is clear is that culture determines the uniqueness of individuals of a particular group of people just as personality determines how unique an individual is Hofstede (2001). Hofstede suggests that culture is not inherited but learnt, not specific to any individual but is shared by a group of people from within an individual cultural environment (CLMS, M3 U1:5), and that cultural awareness is essential to any culturally diverse organisation. My personal viewpoint is that a ‘reprogramming’ of the mind and understanding of what individuals’ of a different culture value, how they expect to be treated, language differences, behaviours and the way they do things is likely to build trust, mutual respect, gain cooperation and in the long run reduce staff turnover.

Values

Comparable to a diverse organisation with staff from different cultures, with differences in values, beliefs and assumptions that have to be stripped back to be understood and managed, Hofstede’s attention turned to values, demonstrating the visible layers of organisational culture that can influence businesses from different dimensions (CLMS, M3 U1:13). Using the "Onion Diagram" in Figure 1 (ibid), he sees values as the invisible and implicit mental software - the nucleus of national culture and the most influential since these are formed early in life by absorbing information from and mimicking those around (ibid).

Hofstede defined values as "a broad tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over others" (CLMS, M3 U1:7) and cites Kluckhohn saying, "value is a conception, explicit or implicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a group.…" (ibid). E.g., an implicit value for the UK as a pluralistic country is fairness and equality for all, personal freedom and advancement in comparison to say China where an implicit value is the acceptance of inequality in their society and loyalty to organisation/group above self-advancement. Therefore, hiring and promotion should be effected with group consideration in mind as opposed to the UK where personal fulfilment and self-contribution to society is a norm Hofstede (1980) (cited in CLMS, M3 U1) cultural dimension studies.

Fig 1:

These intrinsic values are different from organisational ones, are core to the alignment and implementation success of HR practices, and are to be handled with sensitivity when operating in MNCs. Besides values, Hofstede (1980) also identified other practices that are also fundamental to a nation’s culture that should equally be taken into consideration when implementing HR practices since emotions are usually attached to these (CLMS, M3 U1). He cited symbols as the most visible and seen by others and includes gestures, pictures, dress style, flags etc. Other practices include heroes who are iconic individuals alive, dead or imagined and seen as role models from book/magazine characters, past presidents/leaders or TV personalities and ritual practices that are performed collectively in communities and seen to be socially essential like greetings and ceremonies (ibid). All of which can be crucial for decision-making and when managing diverse groups as well as finding out which HR practices are most effective when operating in countries with different cultural values.

Cultural dimensions

Since national and regional levels contribute to the culture of an organisation, which in turn influence practices and how people behave, to help us understand and measure cultural differences, Hofstede developed the culture value dimension model (CLMS, M3 U1). Using data analysis from his (1980) attitude survey, he analysed results for 51 countries, by measuring managers’ perception in four socio-cultural dimensional areas and identified the differences that give insight into how workplace values differ from one country to another. Grouped under four distinctive headings of ‘cultural dimensions’ and a fifth one added later, these societal values are based on scores of high or low to determine what values are fundamental to a country or culture (ibid). To explore this in more depth, Professor Hofstede’s work is available online at The Hofstede Centre www.geert-hofstede.com/dimensions.html and reading his book. However, for this exercise, the purpose is to demonstrate the importance of considering cultural differences when implementing HR practices and how to adapt them based on the culture of operation. Hofstede (1980) cultural studies covered:

Power distance (PDI): relates to the degree to which an individual accepts, that inequality exists in the society, that there is an unequal distribution of power in a group and differences are accepted.

Individualism/collectivism (IDV): relates to the degree at which individuals are more focussed on their own needs as oppose to others and being integrated into a group.

Masculinity/femininity (MAS): relates to the division of gender roles in a society that leans more towards preference for male/female leaders who exhibit certain values and behaviours similar to the organisation.

Uncertainty avoidance: (UAI): relates to the degree to which individuals relate to life’s uncertainties when dealing with unknown and ambiguous situations.

Long Term Oriented (LTO): the focus is on long-term goals where individuals places value on the past or present and lean more towards tradition. Application of these starts on page 10.

Hofstede’s work has since paved the way for managers in MNCs to manage, develop and implement HR practices more effectively. However, his outstanding contribution towards propelling culture forward is not without criticisms. Fellow researchers Triandis (1994), McSweeney (2002), West and Graham (1998) (Cited in CLMS, M3 U1-4) criticised his work for using survey as the only instrument to measure culture, restricting the survey to managers, surveying a single company and creating the potential for stereotyping through dimensional grouping in one of the most comprehensive studies on cultural values.

Notwithstanding the criticisms, his work provides a common framework as the foundation to evaluate approaches, make decisions and modify action based on the society’s perception and reaction. With MNCs increasing their international dominance, Hofstede’s study can also provide the basis for HR managers to have a discussion on effectively implementing HR practices in their international operations. What is evident from the literature, is that when managers or policy makers ignore the profound values described which are often hidden and not the easiest to identify, this can leave individuals feeling dissatisfied, lacking motivation and trust resulting in conflict or hostility (CLMS, M3 U1:5). Therefore, given that all countries are culturally diverse and locked in their own laws and practices, it becomes pertinent for managers to ensure relevant policies and legal requirements are aligned to practices of national culture (ibid).

Evidences from the literatures show that national culture varies from country to country by organisations in a variety of management practices Yitzhak and Hilla (2009). Therefore, organisations with HR practices that are in tune with a country’s cultural values tend to make more impact on organisational performance (ibid). As such, attempts have been made to measure cultural differences by country Hofstede (1980 and 1991), Trompenaars (1983) (cited in CLMS, M3 U1-4) and others.

Significance of national culture on human resource management practices (HR)

Therefore, an awareness of the significance of cultural differences is integral to managing people. Graham cites Adler in (CLMS, M3 U1) as saying that diversity requires understanding others and the pervasiveness of culture impacts on HR at international levels. Therefore, it is argued that the design and implementation of HR practices in an international context should fundamentally reflect the cultural differences in values, expectations and communication styles, thinking and decision making, expectations and behaviours amongst others (CLMS, M3 U1:23). Concurring, Milikić (2009) cites several authors asserting that compared to other management practices, HR practices appear to be the most affected by cultural differences since it overlook the influences of cultural on HR practices in the different countries.

Milikic (2009) further cites Laurent (1986) pointing out that in studies of international HR the divergent perspective attributes cultural differences to causing differences in individual perceptions and preferences which shape behaviour in organisations. As such, the effects of the differences are extensive, and pattern organisational behaviours in areas of communication, performance appraisals, recognition and rewards, motivation etc all cause differences Hofstede (1980).

Human resource management (HR)

Economic theory suggests that both formal and informal institutional environment influences administrative structures, which manage individual actions and behaviour within organisations Milikic (2009). Therefore, HRM is about managing all aspects of decision-making and actions that impact on both employees and the employer Beer et al cited in Armstrong (2000), therefore placing people management at the core of strategic focus in the business. HRM consist of a set of policies and practices aimed at developing people as an asset to help achieve organisational goals rather than the cost Tyson and York (2000).

National culture influence on HR practices

Besides strategies, HR also consists of a set of core practices that enable organisations to deal with their people more effectively throughout the different stages of their profession and successfully achieve the goals of organisations Armstrong (2009). This involves core practices of hiring and firing, employee relations, training and development, performance appraisal etc. These practices are heavily reliant on the surrounding of the culture in which they operate Laurent (1991) (cited in CLMS, M3 U4).

To avoid cultural blindness in making assumptions about what practice works or not in one country often requires consulting with the managers from the different countries to gain knowledge and understanding of the cultural differences and local language verbal and non-verbal. Additionally, the local/national requirements, HR planning and ways of doing things that might not apply in that culture and will therefore need adaptation to suit the values and dynamics of that culture (Black and Triandis cited in CLMS, M3 U1-4).

While managers may have the urge to apply HR practices consistently across national borders as a way of being fair, care should be taken in how these are applied (CLMS, M3 U4:3) as this could signal a different message to that culture than intended and have the reverse effect if cultural differences are ignored. This section now focuses on some of the core HR practices using Hofstede’s framework to explore how cultural differences can manifest themselves through HR practices.

Examples using HR practice areas of recruitment, training and development and compensation are shown below using cultural dimensions applicable to the USA, UK, China and India:

Recruitment

To survive in the global market and particularly the economic down, companies are moving their operations abroad like IT firms, cell phone providers and call centre operations (CLMS, M3 U1). Calling your phone provider for technical support could connect you to a call centre team in India. Therefore, employers need to know they are getting competent, adaptable and qualified individuals who fit the culture of the organisation to enabled them to maintain a competitive edge Aycan (2005) (cited in Abdullah et al 2010). Good recruitment practice should be structured to include practices of the country it is recruiting for, should ensure that when recruiting for international corporations recruiters have a clear understanding of the job market, need for the post and preference to hire locally/internationally (ibid).

Recruiting talents for emerging markets like China and India who are (High Collectivists) societies valuing relationships, group and company loyalty, might not want to recruit externally (CLMS, M3 U1). Since research shows that this culture’s preference is for internal recruitment, it might be difficult recruiting externally for these countries. Particularly, if recruiting from the (Individualist) group who might be viewed as an outsider Aycan (2005). Graham (2001) (cited in CLMS, M3 U1) and Triandis (cited in CLMS, M3 U4) concurred saying ‘differences exist in the way individuals in different countries experience in-group difficulties’ as an outsider.

Where recruiting externally it is essential to have clearly defined roles and expected outcomes, have an interest in and empathy for the host country and familiarity with operation Aycan et al (2000), awareness of language differences spoken and non-verbal, and low ethnocentrism (CLMS, M3 U1:21).

Additionally, where possible it is useful for the recruiter to come from the same or similar background and understand the culture, knowledgeable of any legal framework surrounding issues of recruiting locally or internationally (CLMS, M3 U1). Example, although the USA and UK first language is English, this is not the case for China and India who speak another language. Therefore, when recruiting the most competent individuals for MNCs operating in these countries care should be taken to ensure that all areas are considered, and adapt HR practices accordingly to comply with standards of the country.

Recruiting for the USA and UK the culture is highly individualistic (High IND) and highly masculine (High MAS), the recruiter should aim to get candidates who have attributes consistent with this culture; individual who work well on their own have a strong outspoken personality, are adaptable, confident, risk takers, thrive on challenging situations and are target driven (CLMS, M3 U1). Additionally, while China and India have a (High MAS) male dominated culture and may fit the role and thrive well in this culture, others who are (High Collectivists and UAI) might not, given the preference to work as a team with team incentives (ibid).

Training and development

After carefully selecting competent individuals, it is essential for them to keep working for the organisation and remain motivated using their professional expertise to meet the corporation’s needs. Delivering training for individuals from the different cultures in MNCs setting can pose numerous problems if the training does not take into consideration its surroundings, type of learners and background and if content is not adapted and targeted where it is needed the most (CLMS, M3 U4). Research has shown that the majority of training fails because of absence of cultural awareness training and programmes not adapted to the needs of the learners Rodriguez, (cited in CLMS, M3 U4). Therefore, if a programme works in one culture, it does not necessarily mean that it will work in another. Graham, (cited in CLMS, M3 U1) said the focus of expat training should be on the local customs, international and marketing problems, whereas the focus for local nationals receiving training should be an emphasis on the products and service being offered by the MNC and technical information.

With so many mitigating factors influencing the success of expat training programme, it can be a challenge balancing the varying behaviours and attitudes. Nevertheless, this is common with some training programmes since individuals cling to held beliefs, ways of doing things and preferences Graham (cited in CLMS, M3 U1). Example in a (High MAS PD) male culture like China, previously dominated by dictatorship mentality, the trainer leads and should not expect much input or in a (Low MAS PD) female culture like Denmark where individual empowerment and independence is exercised. In a training setting with Chinese and Danish trainees, one group would expect to be guided throughout; very much instructor led and would not welcome debates, while the Danish group would expect more hands on learning, very much learner-centred with stimulating discussions. Therefore, programmes would need to have activities aimed at both groups to keep interest and motivation high. When considered in foreign territories, this can be daunting but exchanging fear for open-mindedness to change can be rewarding Graham (cited in CLMS, M3 U1:26) and Rodriguez (cited in U4).

Hence, it is essential for expat trainers to have prior awareness of need for the programme, content and expectation, what works or not for that national culture, the type of learners and language differences (spoken and unspoken) and linguistics distance (CLMS, M3 U1:21). Graham (cited in CLMS, M3 U1: 21-13) encourages trainers to get to know the trainees native languages’ for that local setting since this can provide useful information about their values and likely behaviours and help them plan better for an effective outcome. The success of training programmes in MNCs depends on the cultural preferences of the learners being met (CLMS, M3 U4:3)

In view of this, factoring in learners’ preference for a training style, e.g., tutor-led or hands-on, base the learner’s cultural environment can lead to effective training outcome, since approach that works for trainees in one culture might not suit another (CLMS, M3 U4). E.g., in a (High Collectivist) culture trainees look to the trainer to be in charge and provide all the information while in a (High IND) society the expectation is involvement (CLMS, M3 U4:3). Career development is common in (Low PD) societies than (High PD).

Compensation (reward and recognition)

In order for MNCs to remain competitive, attract high calibre candidates, and keep them, compensation practices will need alignment to the country of operation involving relevant personnel. As one of the most important area of HR practice, compensation is also the most sensitive since it can affect emotions and motivation (CLMS, M3 U1: 27-28). When it comes to companies evaluating staff performance and rewarding them accordingly, managing this internationally takes on a different context. As such, it becomes challenging, developing a compensation package that is fair and equitable for everyone Graham (ibid), and particularly when dealing with multiple sites with different expectations. As such, compensation practices designed and based on the cultural expectations of best fit of the particular MNC could have significant influence on getting and maintaining the right individual ((ibid).

For example, in a (High IND) and masculine culture such as USA and the UK, compensation works well for individuals who would expect nothing less, it acts as a driver of performance improvement. From an Anglo Saxton perspective, emphasis is placed on performance related pay (CLMS, M3 U4); hence, this group would expect to be remunerated for work well done. As a (High IND and High MAS) society, this group is more ‘individualistic’, ‘I’ rather than ‘we’ and are incentive driven, motivated by success and power. As a traditional male driven culture this group enjoys competition and challenges and are more likely to ask for a salary increase (CLMS, M3 U1:26).

This system of compensation approach however, might not be appropriate in counties like China and India where indicators place them as (High Collectivist). As a culturally close society with strong family ties who also have organisational influence, unlike the UK and USA the norm is ‘collectivism’, the buzz word is ‘us/we’ and the consensus is group acknowledgement rather than ‘I’ Hofstede (1980).

Therefore, while evaluation and acknowledgement of team performance incentives will work, individual bonus incentives may need separate consideration base on the sector and tied to other criteria (CLMS, M3 U1:26). ‘I’ is seen as betrayal to the rest of the in-group. As such, loyalty, job satisfaction and relationship take preference over remuneration packages (ibid). Hence, such financial rewards for work well done need careful consideration in this setting. However, this group also has a (High MAS) indicator with male dominance, implementing compensation practice in the same culture could prove challenging at this level if a decision is taken in isolation. Individuals’ in this group are financially and status driven with difference values and expectations (CLMS, M3 U1), therefore, it is worth finding out from the various personnel in that culture what compensation criteria works best and adapt compensation practice accordingly (CLMS, M3 U1)