Trends In Developing Countries

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

The population doubled between 1960 and 1990 in most of the developing nations.The population in Africa is projected to nearly double from 1.1 billion to about 2.3 billionby 2050 in Africa. This depends on the supposition that total fertility rate will decline from 5.1 to nearly 3.0 by 2050. In reality, surveys have indicated either slow TFR decline or are not taking place at all.

The current population is 4.3 billion, but Asia is likelyto experience proportionately a smaller increase as compared to Africa but could still add about 1 billion people by 2050, much of which is dependent on India and China, the two most populous nations.Asia’s TFR is 2.2. Not including China, 47 % of Asian women use modern contraception methods. Countries like Japan, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan etc. have TFRs of 1.4 or even lower.24 % of the population is in the age group of 65 and older in Japan.

Latin America. Latin America and the Caribbean are with the smallest proportional growth anticipated by 2050, from 599 million to 740 million. This is largely due to decline in fertility in some of its largest countries like Brazil and Mexico. The current TFR about 2.2 and the use of modern contraception will keep the nations in balance.

Trends in Developed Countries

A very sharp decline in fertility is noticed in the developed countries.Europe is the first region to see long-term population decline TFRs of 1.4and even lower is a surprise. TFR close to 2.0 is prevalent in the countries such as France and Norway.Europe's population is anticipated to decrease from 740 million to 732 million by 2050.A load of elderly people, shortages of pension system and high health care costs are all responsible for low TFRs.

In USA, Australia, Canada and New Zealand, growth from higher births orimmigration is likely to continue. In the United States, the TFR was 1.9 births per woman in 2010.

7.1.4 Population explosion and Demographic transition

Population explosion

"The geometric expansion of a biological population, especially the unchecked growth in human population resulting from a decrease in infant mortality and an increase in longevity".

"When the population increases in such a way that increases in the fixed proportion of its own size at any time, its growth is said to be exponential".

In simple words it is a rapid increase in the size of a population due to sudden decline in infant mortality, increase in natality or an increase in life expectancy in abundant supply of resources.With increase in size, the increase also becomes bigger. Thus, the actual increase depends on 1) rate of increase in proportion to its size and 2) its own size at that instant.

Demographic transition

The "Demographic Transition" is a model that seeks to explain thepopulation change over time. The model is based on an analysisthat started in 1929 by Warren Thompson, an American demographer,about the observed changes or transitionin birth and death rates in developed societies over a period of two hundred years or so. The model explains the changeover of countries from having high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates. In the developed countries the transition began since the eighteenth century and continues even today. In LDCs the transition started off much later and is still in the middle of earlier stages. The model takes into account the crude birth rate (CBR) and crude death rate (CDR) over a period oftime.

Stage I

Pre modern times were characterized by stability between birth rates and death rates. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, this balance was broken in Western Europe which had a high CBR and CDR. At least the population growth was extremely slow,since the "Agricultural Revolution" almost 10,000 years ago. It was less than 0.05% that resulted in long doubling times of 1-5,000 yrs.

Natality was high because more children meant more employeesto work on the farm.With high mortality; families needed more children to ensure survival and continuity of the family. Death rates were high due tooutbreak of diseases like influenza, scarlet fever, plague,cholera, typhoid, typhus, dysentery, diarrheaTB, measles, diphtheria, and whooping cough, etc.,lack of adequate knowledge of disease prevention and cure, lack of clean drinking water,occasional food shortages, lack of sewage disposal and proper hygiene.

The high CBR and CDR were somewhat in equilibrium and is reflected as slow growth of a population. Occasionally, epidemic outbreak would dramatically increase the CDR for a few years (shown by the "waves" in Stage I of the model). Their balance consequently results in only very slow population growth and is also known as"High Stationary Stage".Stage One illustrates all world regions until the 17th.Century. Some demographers summarizes up its character as a "Malthusian stalemate".

Stage II

In the middle of 18th century, the mortality in Western European countries dropped due to improved sanitation and medicine. Traditionally and due to practice, the birth rate remained high. The decline in the mortality in Europe initiated in northwestern Europe and spread over the followingcentury to the south end east. This is due to improvements in food supply, higher yields and agricultural practices like crop rotation, selective breeding, and seed drill technology. Significant improvements in public health reduced mortality, mostly in childhood.Improvements in water supply, sewage system, food handling, and general personal hygiene developed from growing scientific knowledge helped greatly.

This dropping death rate but stable natality in the beginning of Stage II resulted inshooting up population growth rates. The gap between deaths and births grew wider.Over time, children became an added burdenas they were not able to contribute to the family wealth. Populations still grew quickly but this expansion began to slow down. Many LDC are at present in Stage II of the model. For instance, Kenya with high CBR of 32 /1000 and low CDR of 14 / 1000 contribute to a high growth rate. Another characteristic is aalteration in the age structure of the population. In Stage I, majority of death was between 5-10 years of life. Stage Two entails increasing survival of children and the age structure of the population becomes progressively youthful.

Stage III

In the late 20th century, the Crude Birth Rate and Crude Death Rate in developed countries both started falling. In some cases the CBR is little higher than the CDR (as seen in U.S.A, 14 versus 9) while in many other countries the CBR is less than the CDR (as observed in Germany, 9 versus 11). Immigration from LDCcontributes to much of the population growth in developed countries.The countries like China, South Korea, Singapore, and Cuba are quickly approaching towards Stage III.

The population moves towards stability through a decline in the birth rate. Such a shift contradicts Malthus's belief that changes in the death rates were the primary cause of population change. In general the drop in birth rates in developed countries began towards the end of the 19th.Century, followed the decline in death rates.

There are several factors contributing to this eventual decline, such as

Childhood death continues and parents came to comprehend that they do not require many children to them.

Increasing urbanization changes the traditional values. Urban living also raises the living cost.Joint family changes to nuclear family. People begin to justify rationally just how many children they need to live comfortably.

Increasing female literacy and employment lowered the acceptance of childbearing and motherhood.Women valued themselves beyond childbearing and motherhood. They entered workplace, mix with a good no of other people, change their attitudes and become vocal about their own decisions.

Improvements in contraceptive technology

The model is illustrated below:  History of the glacial theory  Development of the glacial theory

STAGE FOUR is characterized by stability where both the birthrate and death rate have fallen drastically, mostly seen in very highly developed countries. Such changes have happened in places where female literacy has increased the most. It is not simply due to the solicitation of modern drugs but, rather, behavioral changes related to hygiene that have improved survivaland favored life over death.

7.2 Family welfare program

NATIONAL FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAMME

The National Family Welfare Programme was launched in India in 1951 is a centrally sponsored programme. The objective of this programme was to reduce birth rate necessary to stabilize the country’s population to an extent that was steady with our economy. Under the First and Second Five Year Plans, the approach was largely clinical. Based on the 1961 census report, the clinical approach was replaced by "Extension and Education Approach". High importance was rendered to the programme with the proposal of reducing birth rate from 35 per thousand to 32 per thousand by the finish of IV th five year plan. This continued in the V plan (1974-79) to bring birth rate further down to 30 per thousand by the end of 1978-79 along with combination of family planning services with those of Health, Maternal and Child Health (MCH) and Nutrition. Striking increase in sterilization was observed during 1975-1977.Government changed the name of the programme from Family Planning to Family Welfare. The VII five year plan (1985-90) continued on a voluntary basis with importance on supporting spacing methods, acquiring maximum community participation and endorsing maternal and child health care. MahilaSwasthyaSanghs (MSS) at village level was constituted comprising 15 persons like Adult Education Instructor, Anganwari Worker, Primary School Teacher, MahilaMukhyaSevika and the Dai. The Member-Convenor is theAuxiliary Nurse Midwife (ANM).In the Eighth Plan (1992-97) greater emphasis was put on the of NGOs involvement to complement the Government initiatives. During the Ninth and Tenth Plan period reduction in population growth rate was recognized as one of the priority objectives. The National Family Welfare Programme offers the following contraceptive services like condoms, oral contraceptive pills and intra uterine device (IUD) such as Copper-T for spacing births. Emergency Contraceptive Pill (ECP) was also introduced during 2002-03 that can be used to check unwanted pregnancy after an unprotected sexual intercourse act.

7.2.1 Methods of sterilization (done)

Under National Family Welfare Programme the common sterilization or terminal methods are –

A) Tubectomy- method of female sterilization by ligating the fallopian tube. It can be Mini Lap Tubectomy and LaproTubectomy.

B) Vasectomy - method of male sterilization by ligating the vas deferens. It can be Conventional Vasectomy or No-Scalpel Vasectomy.

7.1.2 Urbanization

The world is progressively becoming more urban, as more people move to cities and towns. This may be in search of employment opportunities, educational facilities and higher living standards. More than 75 per cent of inhabitants in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States are urban. In Africa and Asia, about a third of the total populations represent urban dwellers. 261 cities in developing countries will have populations over 1 million by the end of the century. This was 213 in the mid-1990s. There were14 so-called "mega-cities, "in 1994 with at least 10 million people. Their number is predicted to double by the year 2015.Butrapid urban growth pressurizes the local and national governments to provide the basic services such as watersupply, electricity supply and sewerage system.Most of the new growth is likely to occur in small towns and cities. Cities provide with more promising backdrop for the resolving social and environmental problems than the rural areas. Cities generate employment and income rate is higher than the rural areas. The governance is good, cities offer congenial atmosphere for work, communication, education, health care and other services more efficiently.Opportunities for social mobilization and women’s empowerment are great. People leaving native town in persuit of better lives in the city often end up in shantytowns and slums; a place where they lack access to decent housing, proper sanitation, proper health care and education, i.e., trading in rural for urban poverty. Over one billion people reside in urban slums, which are highly overcrowded, polluted and dangerous.

International migration is also increasing day by day. In 1990 there were twelve million refugees. Approximately, half of the over 125 million people lives outside their national boundaries.The emigration is mainly driven by income disparities between nations, political conflicts, loss of homeland, environmental degradation etc.

7.3 Environmental and human health

7.3.1 Environmental health

The environment surrounding us does affect our health. On an average, the life span has almost doubled over the past century primarily because we have safe and clean drinking water. We can take in fresh oxygen and we are immunized against deadly diseases. If parts of the environment, like air and water or soil degrade, it can culminate to health problems. Environmental health refers to all the physical, chemical, and biological factors external to a person. It comprises all associated factors affecting behaviors. It involves the evaluation and control of all the environmental factors that can potentially affect health. It is aimed towards preventing disease so as to create health-supportive environments. Behaviour is well correlated to the social and cultural environment and genetics.

Some environmental risks are natural, such as, radon in the soil. Others are the result of anthropogenic activities, like lead poisoning from paint, mercury from industrial use. Various diseases can be correlated with the environment. Asthma causes inflammation of the nasal passage and thus blocks the normal air flow. The symptoms are wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and troubled breathing. Asthma is now very frequent among the children and affects millions. The genetic connection is obvious but the increase in incidence does direct us towards the increase in allergens, aerosols, particulate matter etc. Other lung diseases like emphysema, pulmonary fibrosis, pneumonia, lung cancer show a strong connection with exposure to ozone, particulate matters and sulfur dioxide, and an increase in other respiratory symptoms, reduced lung capacity, and threat of early death. Researches show that genetic disorders like Parkinson’s disease may be triggered by contact with pesticides and other chemicals. Reproductive diseases and disorders including birth defects, developmental disorders, low birth weight, reduced fertility, impotence, and menstrual disorders have a strong correlation to environmental pollutants like mercury, lead, thallium etc. People who are exposed to crystalline silica dust, has a two- to four times increased risk for developing the chronic Lupus disease. Asbestosis is very common among the people working with asbestos as the fibers are easily inhaled along with air, though the time lag between significant inhalation and any adverse health manifestations can extend to 30 or more years. Electrical and magnetic fields (EMFs) surround electrical devices such as power lines, electrical wiring, and appliances. In adults, EMFs may reduce heart rate and interfere with brain activity during sleep.

7.3.2 Climate and health

Climate change does affect the weather conditions. Average warmer temp will lead to longer heat waves which can concentrate air and water pollutants. Changes in temperature, rainfall and extreme events could augment the spread of diseases.Severity of weather extremes such as storms, flooding, high winds, etc. poses direct threats to people and property.

The effects of climate change on health isdependant on the effectiveness of a community's public health and safety systems.The impacts may vary with region, the sensitivity and susceptibility of populations, the degree and time-span of exposure, and society's ability to adapt to cope with the change.

Climate Change Upsets Human Health and Wellbeing

The impacts of global climate change on human health and welfare may be in the following way -

Expected health effects are likely to plunge mostly on the poor people, the very old age groups, the very young, the disabled, and the uninsured people.

Adaptation should initiate from now, beginning with public health infrastructure. Steps are to be taken by individuals, communities, and government agencies to moderate the impacts of climate change on human health.

Impacts from Heat Waves and Extreme Weather Events

Heat waves can lead to dehydration and heat stroke.It is more likely to impact the populations in northern and upper latitudes where people are much less adapted to excessive temperatures. Urban areas are naturally warmer than their rural surroundings which would increase the demand for electricity to run air conditioners, which in turn would boost GHG emissions and air pollution.

The frequency and intensity of tropical storms and flooding is likely to increase. These could cause injuries and, in some cases, death. This may have the following impacts -

Scarcity in the availability of fresh food and water.

Interrupted communication, essential and health care services.

Susceptibility to carbon monoxide poisoning from portable generators used during and after storms.

Increased incidence ofgastric and intestinal disorders among evacuees.

Susceptibility to different types of mental states such as depression and post-traumatic stress.

Impacts from Reduced Air Quality

Ozone

Researches project the increase in ground level ozone with increase in temperatures leading to smog formation. E.g.,Smog in Los Angeles. Ground-level ozone can damage lung tissue, can reduce lung function, inflame airways and aggravate asthma. Ground level ozone may be formed when air pollutants, such as carbon monoxide, NOX and VOC are exposed to each other.

b. Fine Particulate Matter

Particulate matter less than 2.5 microns may be formed by chemical reactions between sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and VOC, inhalation of which aggravate cardiovascular and respiratory disease, chronic lung disease, exacerbation of asthma. Other sources include thermal plants, petroleum and diesel engines, wood combustion, smelters and steel mills, and forest fires.

Allergens

Climate change may affect the length of the season,flowering and pollination patterns. Experiments on ragweed shows that increase in carbon dioxide concentrations in air and atmospheric temperatures would increase the quantity and time of ragweed pollen production.

Impacts from Climate-Sensitive Diseases

Changes in climate may boost the spread of some diseases. Pathogens, can be transmitted through food, water, and animals such as birds, insects. Climate change could probably affect all of these vectors or carriers.

Food-borne Diseases

Higher air temperatures may facilitateSalmonella and other bacteria-related food poisoning because bacteria multiples more rapidly in hot environments. These diseases cause gastrointestinal disturbance and, in severe cases can be fatal.

Flooding and heavy rainfall can overflow sewage. Overflows into fresh water and soil could contaminate certain food crops with parasite and pathogen-infestedfaecal matter.

Water-borne Diseases

Heavy rainfall or flooding can increases water-borne parasites such as Giardia, Cryptosporidiumand Entamoeba that affect the intestine leading to diarrhea and blood stool. The most common illness contracted from water contamination is gastroenteritis, with symptoms such as vomiting, headaches, and fever. Other minor illness include ear, eye, nose, and throat infections.

Animal-borne Diseases

Mosquitoes are supported by warm, wet climates and can spread diseases such as Malaria, Dengue, West Nile virus, Yellow fever, Filaria, etc.

The geographic range of ticks carrying Lyme disease with symptoms such as fever, headache, fatigue, and a characteristic skin rash is limited by temperature. With temperatures rise, ticks are likely to migrate northward.

7.3.3 Diseases

7.3.3.1 Infectious diseases and Non- infectious diseases

A non-communicable or non – infectious disease is a disease which non-transmissible among people.These are not contagious and cannot be transmitted from one person to another. They include autoimmune diseases, myasthemia gravis, cardio vascular disease, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), stroke, cancers, asthma, malnutrition, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, osteoporosis, Down’s syndrome, cystic fibrosis, TaySach, Huntington, Alzheimer's disease, cataracts, psychosis and more.

Lung cancer- May be caused by excessive exposure to cigarette smoke or other pollutants.

Leukemia – cancer of the WBC,malignant cells are released and carried through blood. They may infiltrate body tissues such as the liver, the skin, and the Central Nervous System.

Skin Cancer- Caused primarily by exposure to UV rays that damages DNA and the DNA fails to repair. This is triggered by stratospheric ozone depletion.

Thyroid Cancer- may be caused by previous radiation therapy.

Heart Disease - A portion of the heart is cut off from oxygen because of the obstruction of one of the coronary arteries supplying O2 to the heart. It is mostly triggered by cigarette smoking, high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, a saturated fat content diet, obesity, lack of exercise and diabetes mellitus.

Diabetes Mellitus- a metabolic disorder with high blood glucose level due to inability of the pancreas to secrete insulin. Patients are at risk of kidney damage, peripheral nerve degeneration and vision disorders.

Seizures or Epilepsy - are alterations in neurologic functions resulting from bursting of abnormal electrical action in the brain. Partial seizures may generate isolated movementssuch as chewing, lip smacking or swallowing or odd sensations, such as numbness. Damage to brain, tumor or stroke may also cause seizures.

7.3.3.2 Water-related diseases

Water, sanitation and hygiene have important impacts on both health and disease.

Water-related diseases may comprise-

diseases due to micro-organisms and chemicals in water people drink;

diseases like schistosomiasis where the pathogenspent part of their lifecycle in water;

diseases like malaria where the vector life cycle is related to water

1.Arsenic is found in soil and minerals. Arsenic contamination is a common concern in countries including Argentina, India, Bangladesh, Chile, Mexico, China, Thailand, and US. Arsenic compounds are used as pesticides and in some industries. Arsenic can get into air, water, and the ground from wind-blown dust. It may contaminate water from runoff. We may be exposed to arsenic by –

Intakingsmall amounts along with food, water or air.

Breathing sawdust or burning smoke from wood that is treated with arsenic.

Residing in an area having high levels of arsenic in rock.

Occupational exposure to arsenic.

Arsenicosis is a chronic illness consequential from drinking arsenic contaminated water with high levels of arsenic over 5 to 20 years. It shows various health effects including skin problems, can cause corns and small warts skin cancer, bladder cancer, kidney cancer and lung cancer, affects peripheral circulation, high blood pressure and reproductive disorders.

2. Excessive intake of fluorine in drinking water causes fluorosis, characterized chiefly by mottling of the teeth. Syria, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Sudan and Kenya, and Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, India, northern Thailand and China are rich in fluorine in water. Acute high-level exposure causes abdominal pain, excessive salivation, nausea, vomiting, seizures and muscular spasm. Long-term ingestion lead to skeletal fluorosis with early symptoms of skeletal fluorosis including stiffness and pain in the joints. In extreme case, the bony structure deforms, ligaments calcify, with impairment of muscles and severe pain.

3. Hepatitis is a disease highlighting liver. Hepatitis A and E can be communicated through water, food and from person to person. Hepatitis A is recurrent in poor sanitary and hygienic conditions of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The symptoms begin with an abrupt onset of fever, body weakness, and loss of appetite, nausea and abdominal discomfort, followed by jaundice within a few days.

4. Excess nitrate forms methaemoglobin after reacting with hemoglobin of blood causing methaemoglobinemia. The disease is characterized by the reduced ability of the blood to transport oxygen because of reduced levels of normal free haemoglobin. The symptoms are blueness around the mouth, hands and feet, troubled breathing, vomiting and diarrhoea. Extreme cases are marked by lethargy, salivation, loss of consciousness.

5. Polio spreads through human-to-human contact, usually routing the body through the mouth by faecally contaminated water or food. The virus attacks the nerve cells in the brain causing paralysis of muscles as those controlling swallowing, heartbeat, and respiration. The disease is fatal if left untreated. Polio-endemic countries are northern India, Egypt, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Somalia and Nigeria.

Mercury is used in the thermometers, barometers as it is liquid and in fluorescent light bulbs. Metallic mercury is extremely dangerous with skin contact and results in the absorption of mercury into the blood stream and potential health problems. Mercury poisoning may include skin rashes, muscular weakness, mental disturbance, speech impairment, defective of hearing and vision and "pins and needles" sensation in the hands and feet. Mercury in soil and water undergoes bioconcentration and biomagnification as evidenced in the Minamata incident.

Lead is has been used in paint, ceramics, lead pipes, solders, petroleum, batteries, and cosmetics, etc. The most common sources of lead exposure lead-based paint, contaminated soil and drinking water, lead crystal, and glazed pottery. Lead exposure can cause a range of neurological disorders. The symptoms can be lack of muscular coordination, convulsions and coma. Adults subjected to chronic lead exposure suffers from increased blood pressure, decreased fertility, nervous disorders, severe muscle and joint pain, and memory related problems.

Infectious diseases, ortransmissible diseases or communicable diseasesexhibitscharacteristic signs and/or symptoms of disease.It happens due to the presence and growth of pathogens that causes infection in the body of the host. In specific cases like HIV/AIDS, the disease is usually asymptomatic. The pathogens can beviruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, multicellular parasites, orprions. The disease incidence can be sporadic, epidemics or pandemic. Infectivityis the ability of an organism to inoculate,incubate and multiply in the host.Infectiousnessspecifies the ease with which the disease gets transmitted to other hosts. The disease can spread from one infected individual to other through transmission of pathogen by physical contact, contaminated food and water, body fluids transfusion, fomites, inhalation, or through carriers and vectors.

The disease is called contagious when they are transmitted by contact with an affected person or through their secretions.

H1N1 (Swine) Flu cases have been reported in 168 countries, including U.S. Novel Influenza A H1N1 Virus) is a respiratory disease in pigs can also infect humans. It spreads from human to human, and cause illness.

Measles, also called red measles, is a highly contagious respiratory illness caused by a Rubeolavirus.The air borne virus usually spreads through coughs, sneezes, food or drinks.MMRV vaccines are available against measles, mumps, rubella and varicella.

Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) is an uncommon respiratory disease caused by Hantaviruses or the Sin Nombre virus. HPS can be fatal. Deer, mice and other rodents are the primary carriers who shed the virus in the droppings, urine, and saliva and can then be released in air. Humans can become infected through inhalation.

Pertussis (whooping cough) disease is a very contagious disease of the lungs and respiratory system. It is caused by bacteria, Bordetella pertussis. Children are very prone. Pertussis or "whooping cough" can spread through coughs, sneezes or during talks. DPT vaccine is used to immunize the children.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a contagious disease that is caused by bacteria that primarily attack the lungs and even kidney, spine or brain.  If not treated properly TB is fatal. 

7.3.3.3 Risks due to chemicals in food (done)

Our body and all foods are made up of chemicals. Chemicals found may be natural such as carbohydrates, protein, fat, fibers and a host of other minerals and compounds. There are many potentially harmful or toxic chemicals present in the food we eat, as natural, as contaminants, as pesticides and fertilizers, or as food additives.

Some natural components of plants may themselves cause toxicity. E.g.,glycoalkaloids in potatoes,aubergines, tomatoes of the Solanaceaefamily.Glycoalkaloid toxins cause nausea and vomiting, diarrhoea, stomach cramps and headache with more serious cases having neurological problems, including hallucinations and paralysis.

Contaminants are the substances present in certain food due to cultivation practices, production processes or cooking practices. Contaminants present above permissible levels, these can pose a severe health threat. For instance, excess intake of acrylamide can cause DNA damage, cancer etc.Aflatoxinis known to cause liver damage and dioxins arecarcinogenic.

Foodadditives are substances added to food to impart flavor or to enhance its taste and appearance. The best known additives are Flavors Colors.

Preservatives are primarily used to prevent bacterial and fungal growth, to stop oxidation or tohold back natural ripening of fruits and vegetables.All packaged foods are with preservatives likesodium benzoate and benzoic acid. These are regularly found in sauces, fruit juices, jams and pickled products and can cause allergic reactions and other side effects. Potassium bromate is used in bakery products to increase volume. The residual amount of this oxidizing agent is unsafe if consumed. Sodium Nitrates and nitrites are commonly used in making bacon and hot dogs. Too much consumption of sodium nitrate is known to deteriorate asthma and decrease lung function.

Color additives are used to enhance natural colors and to provide color to colorless and "fun" foods.Artificialcolours are made out of petro chemicals. The colors used may have cetain health impacts such as -

Cancer may be caused by Citrus Red 2, Red 3, Red 40, Blue 1, Blue 2 Yellow 5, Yellow 6, and Green 3.

Allergies may be often caused by Blue 1, Red 40, Yellow 5, and Yellow 6.

Hyperactivity: most food dyes are linked to hyperactivity, attention deficit disorder and related health issues.

Orange colour is generally used to give colour to sweet recipes and syrups causes face behaviour problems and growth problems. Red colour used, causes allergies and thyroid problems. Tumoursmay be formed in brain due to blue1 and blue2 colours along with red rashes on the skin. Green colour is used while cooking green peas, gel, kulfis, paneer recipes, cakes and jams. Excess use of this colour causes asthma and cancer. Octyl Acetate is the main component in orange flavor and isoamyl acetate is the main component of banana flavor. Flavors causes less harm.

SubstitutesNatural dyes were substituted. For e.g., McDonald's strawberry sundae is colored with strawberries and not red 40. Fanta orange soda gets its color from pumpkin and carrot extracts, instead of Red 40 and Yellow 6.

The common types of pesticides are the herbicides,fungicides, heavymetals, insecticides.They are mostly carcinogenic and also reported to trigger Parkinson’s disease. Organochlorines are by far more hazardous than others.DDT resulted in the decrease in the bird population as it reduces the thickness of the egg shells decreasing its viability. In humans, this causes defects in newborn babies. Pesticides damage the reproductive system, nervous system, induces behavioral and developmental abnormalities interfere with hormone function and affect the immune system. They are deposited and concentrate in the adipose tissue and can easily be passed from mothers to breast fed children.

Some commonly used food additives with potential to cause hypersensitivity, asthma and cancer.

7.3.3.4 Cancer and environment

7.3.3.5 HIV/AIDS

HIV or the human immunodeficiency virus damages or kills the cells of body's immune system. The most advanced stage of HIV infection is AIDS. There may not be signs of symptoms. A flu like weakness often lasts for few weeks. Other symptoms may be fever, headache, fatigue, and enlarged lymph nodes. The person may feel normal and the asymptomatic phase may last for years. The virus in the incubation period multiplies rapidly and destroy the the primary infection fighters, the CD4 cells, a type of white blood cell. The infected person is highly contagious and the person loses his immunity. The infections in AIDS are called opportunistic infections as they take advantage of the opportunity to infect a debilitated host. The infections may be pneumonia, MAC (mycobacterium avium complex), histoplasmosis, lymphoma, Kaposi's sarcoma with various symptoms.

Most commonly, HIV infection spreads by having unprotected sex with an infected partner. The virus finds its route through vaginal lining, vulva, penis, rectum, or oral sex. HIV is frequently among injection-drug users sharing contaminated needles or syringes. Infected women can transmit HIV though placenta to their babies during pregnancy or through breastfeeding. HIV may be transmitted if tissues or organs or blood from an infected donor is transplanted or transfused to the recipient. People suffering from sexually transmitted infections, such as syphilis, genital herpes, human papillomavirus (HPV), gonorrhea, etc. are more prone to HIV infections.

Globally 34 million plus people are living with HIV/AIDS of which 3.3 million are children under the age group 15. About 7000 contract HIV daily of which 300 is per hour.

The (HIV/AIDS) has assumed pandemic status and have far-reaching impacts in the society. The infection diminishes the workforce, increases the poverty rates, reduces the agricultural productivity and completely transforms the socio - economic structure of many rural households.The increasing number of death in various countries alters the population dynamics. This has decreased the proportion of prime-age working adults, resulting in gender disparity, whereby, females have to bear added burden of household responsibilities.According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), decline in agricultural productivity is noticed in AIDS-affected households in Kenya.People lose their basic access to land. In a patriarchal society the death of a male household head often cause the women and children to lose possession of land rights.HIV/AIDS distresses the community through the loss of crucial human capital. Resource management organizations suffer because both the knowledge and labor are lost with the death of prime-age adults.Environmental scarcity can intensify and increase HIV/AIDS susceptibility. Actually scarcity of resource deepens poverty and robs the households of feasible livelihood choices.Poverty is found to be the driving force behind HIV/AIDS and unsustainable use of resources. So our efforts to reduce poverty could yield considerable gains both in terms of public health and environmental protection.

7.4 Human Rights

Human rights are defined as the common standards achievement for all people of all nations.

Human right, environment and sustainable development are interdependent and inseparable. Everyone has the right to secure a healthy and ecologically sound environment. The environment should be adequate to meet the needs of both the present and future generation. Everyone has the right to healthy food and safe drinking water. Everyonehas the right to work in safe and healthy environment. It provides freedom from pollution that threatens health. Everyone has the right to information regarding environment as well as to express opinions regarding environment. Everyone has the right not to be driven out or evicted from their homes except during emergency which will overall be benefial to the society. Everyone has the right to timely assistance in case of natural disaster. Everyone has the right to benefit impartially and equitably from conservation and sustainable use of nature and natural resources.

7.4.1 Equity

The constitution of India seeks to provide all Indian citizens with justice , liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; equality of status and of opportunity and to promote among them all, fraternity, assuring the dignity of individual and the integrity of the nation. To ensure liberty and equality for all the parliament have enacted several legislations were passed such as adoption of Untouchability Act, Suppression of Immoral Traffic act, 1956, Dowry Prohibition act, 1961, National Commission for Women At, 1990, National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992, Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993along with separate commissions on minorities, SC and ST, Language etc.

7.4.2 Nutrition, health and human rights (done)

All citizens have the right to health which is "economic, social and cultural right to the highest attainable standard of health", as accepted by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. According to Article. 25 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, everyone is having a right to living which should be ample for health and wellbeing, not only for himself but also for his family. The constitution of World Health Organisation (WHO) also affirms that health is one of the fundamental rights of human beings. Every country being a party to human rights treaty must promote and protect health to respect and fulfill the human rights.

7.4.3 Intellectual property rights and community biodiversity registers

Intellectual property rights

The TRIPs or Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights under WTO was negotiated during the Uruguay Round and India being a party to WTO has to abide by the general provisions of WTO. The intellectual property rules and regulations are thus introduced in the multilateral trading system. These are private rights and ensure the minimum standards of protection that each government gas to afford to the intellectual property right in all the WTO member parties. TRIPS cover Copyrights, Trademarks, Patents, Geographical indications, Trade secrets, Industrial desisns and layout designs of IC.

Community biodiversity registers (Done)

The history of Keoladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary at Bharatpur illustrates an excellent example of the significance and relevance of people's knowledge. After years and years of research, conclusion was drawn to exclude buffalo grazing in that habitat of aquatic birds and well accepted by the government with its up gradation to National Park in 1982. In the absence of grazing, Paspalum,a grass, grew unrestrained and choked the wetland; making it a far inferior habitat.The wetland is famous for Siberian crane, one of the flagship species. The numbers of these migrant birds have been diminishingeven after the constitution of the National Park.

The residents of Aghapur residents opined that the National Park regulations prevented the people from digging out roots of Khas or Vetiver grass. This in turn have compactedthe soil, making it difficult and harder for the Siberian Cranes to procure underground tubers and corms as food. This is one of the earliest attempts in forming People's Biodiversity Registers during 1996-97 involving the village of Aghapur.

Scientists therefore now support and campaignthe flexibility of ecosystem management that must always be equipped to make modifications on the basis of continuouswatching of on-going changes. This is what we call knowledge based, flexible system of "adaptive management".

Many Indians love to live in nature as ecosystem people, closely bonded to the nature to fulfill many of their daily requirements. They cultivate a various indigenous plant species, consume wild fruits, corm bulb and fish, and graze livestock for milk and dairy products, use fuel-wood to prepare their meals, use grass and mud to thatch their huts and cowsheds.They extensively employ herbal remedies and remedy to cure their ailments and worship nature objects like peepal trees and hanuman.

The traditional knowledge of local people regarding local biological resources, their medicinal value or any other use can be enlisted to provide comprehensive information to all, known as community biodiversity registers or people biodiversity registers.

Our intensive, fertilizer aided agriculture is suffering from an intensification of pest and disease outbreaks, with many pests having acquired resistance. Both mosquito and malarial pathogens have acquired resistance sabotaging its eradication programme. Croplands are becoming unproductive due to mineral deficiency, erosion, water logging, salinity etc. Many medicinal treesand herbs are on the verge of extinction. Forests are being depleted resulting in shortage of fuel wood and the village economy is in deep trouble. Under such circumstances, Community Biodiversity Register (CBR) acts an important instrument that can be used by local people to record the resources in terms of biodiversity, traditional knowledge and good practices.A CBR helps creating a sense of ownershipand also helps to safeguard indigenous knowledge, local crops and livestock resources. It helps to strive a balance between development and conservation to eliminate the unwanted consequences leading to the loss of important genetic resources and diversity.

Agriculture is the means of livelihood of communities in rural Sarawak for generations.They grow rubber, rice and pepper for household income. Many other crops provide a food for a diverse diet, building materials, medicines, animal fodder. The area has experienced development in terms of electricity, clean water and good roads.But yet they facechallenges such as unpredictable climatic effects, market uncertainties and unplanned development.Increased human encroachment for increased farmingis replacing traditional agriculture with monoculture with oil palm. But a balance between development and conservation approach is the utmost need which can be achieved by CBR.

7.5 Value Education

Values refer to the handling of one’s own moral, ethics and standards from which we can distinguish between the right and wrong deeds. It is the values within ourselves that helps in decision making that lead us to our justified course of action. Values are time specific. It does change with time. Hunting, poaching, killing of wildlife which was regarded manly and royal once upon a time is now banned by law. Education can be formal or informal. But it main aim is to inculcate moral values in cultural, social aspect so that we can develop, progress and justify our course of actions. Environmental values should enable us to comprehend the core aspects of nature, their relationship to cultural assets, human heritage that will help us for proper use and consumption of resources, do social justice and prevent environmental degradation. We should develop appreciating and realizing our natural treasures but also move towards a sustainable mode of lifestyle. We cannot ignore the aesthetic beauty of our wilderness, the serenity of forests, the magnificent personality and grandeur of lions, tigers and elephants. We still worship God in the form of trees and animals. Emphasis should be laid on the importance of preserving ancient structures. The characteristic buildings, sculpture, artworks are all treasures of ancient cultures and invaluable environmental assets. They provide valuable information from where we came, our status at present and where we are heading towards. The problems created by technological advance and financial growth are mainly due to our lack of proper planning, lack of thinking process, inadequate policy and a lack of urge for living in healthy state of mind and health. It is not technology that causes pollution but it is our lack of awareness of the consequences of limitless and uncontrolled approaches and anti-environmental activities. This mindset should be changed and a deep sense of preserving nature should develop which should be based on spiritual and traditional values. We should learn to appreciate and value the resources we are using, the food we eat, the house we live in, the water that we drink and all other products that forms the basis of ecosystem services that we must appreciate. We should broaden our horizon when we look and perceive our environment.

During the rule of emperor and kings there were no environmental concerns. Colonial rule was only motivated towards the exploitation of natural resources. The primary objective post-independence was centered on poverty eradication, increase in literacy rate and equity and growth. The 1972 Stockholm UNCHE was the eye opener to all of us. An entire chapter on environment was incorporated in the 4th Five Year Plan with emphasis on environmental and economic principles in the use of resources. Environment was included in the Constitution of India in the 42nd Amendment of which Article 48(A) and 51A (g) is most important.

Article 48 A – "The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life of the country".

Article 51A(g) - "It shall be the duty of every citizen of Indiato protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures".

7.5.7 Common property resources

Resources are generally congestible. That means if a resource is used for one purpose the same cannot not be used for another purpose. For e.g. the fish that I eat cannot be eaten by you. But let us consider a congestible resource that everybody can use. Everybody can use as much resource as they want without paying for it. That means it has a zero value. There resources are termed common property resources. The use or access to it is not controlled. Nobody effectively owns these resources. It comprises of a core resource that is often subjected to overuse. Environmental resources are largely uncontrolled resources. A common property resource can be the air we breathe, the water with which we sustain the forests, the pasture, minerals etc. Take for example, a pasture where limited amount of grazing is allowed. This will keep it unharmed. Overgrazing the same may deteriorate its condition, the soil may become loose and susceptible to erosion and fail to benefit subsequently. In the beginning resources were abundant and there was no need to control. All of the resources started off as common property resource but there now a need to control access over it due to its scarcity.

Ecological degradation

Environment is relentlessly changing over time. This may be catered by human activities or natural. Sometimes we do not have control on some changes like the natural disaster. Landslides, earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, and wildfires can completely devastate plant and animal lives. But we cannot ignore our contribution to environmental degradation. An ecosystem is a distinctive unit that comprises all the living and non-living elements interacting within it. Some area sensitive species may require large stretches of land to meet all of their requirements for food and habitat. Habitats fragmentation breaks up such stretch. Construction of roads across forests for tourism purpose often disrupts the normal lifestyle of wildlife. Invasion by exotic species can displace the native species resulting in food shortage of the organisms that depend on these native ones. Environment degrades when we pollute the air water and soil with its emissions, discharges or effluents. Agricultural runoff is a lethal source of pollutants. Excess use of fertilizers and pesticides leads to biococentration, biomanification and eutrophication. Plants, fish, and other organismsstart dyingslowly turning the seas and lakes into dead zone. Nowadays, urban development is one of the principal cause of environmental degradation. With more people pouring in, more towns and cities to be built, more roads to be constructed, more homes needed to live, leads to more felling of tress and use of cropland and thus more ecological imbalance. City planners and resource managers must consider and predict the long term effects of so called development on the environment. This can be achieved with sound policy, good planning and effective execution.

It may not always be the fault of humans, but we sitting in the seat of highest cerebral activity, need to recognize the extent to which nature could provide resources and be responsible enough to utilize it prudently. As a matter of fact, environmental stewardship should form an integral part of healthy resource management practice.

7.6 Women and child welfare

Every year, throughout the world, several million children die of malnutrition and diseases. Majority of these cases are in the developing countries. In most LDC, child mortality is more frequent at infancy; one in five children death are before 5 years old. Several factors relate environment with the wellbeing of mother and child. Children mainly die of diseases like marasmus, kwashiorkor, pneumonia, diarrhea, measles, and malaria. A close link exists between poverty, malnutrition and environmental degradation. The problem is further intensified by a lack of consciousness on how the children become malnourished. The kind of food offered to children is a very important factor during the transition from breast feeding to external food based diet. A slight increase in breastfeeding could save up to 10% of all children under the age five. Continual breastfeed possibly maintains good nutritional status of the children. Mothers individually should be very careful and selective about home care and their children’s diet that should be a complete diet. The mothers should ensure that a child gets enough to eat and should be able to select better and healthy substitutes for food. Women especially of the low income groups spend long hours in working. Women serve as a cheap source of labor than men. Their working pattern is also variable making them susceptible to various health hazards. Some are garbage pickers, some work in tobacco factories, in plastic factories or in drug companies, work as construction labors etc. Handling such disposed, hazardous items they get exposed to various infections. Many living in the slum areas are unhygienic and give rise to respiratory ailments. Frequently they have to walk few kilometers to get water a fuel wood. They serve both outdoor and indoor. They are the last persons in the family to eat feeding other members. Often they eat on the residual food which is inadequate and this leaves them undernourished.This social-environmental division and gender discrimination is a major concern that needs to be rectified. Maternal and child healthcare is an important international issue stated in the Millennium Development Goals and is in the provisions of our national policy.

7.7 Role of information technology in environment and human health

Information technology has incredible prospective in the field of environmental educational and health as it does have in the field of business, economics, politics or culture. It includes development of World Wide Web, GIS and remote sensing, satellite imaging and internet facilities so as to keep us updated and well acquainted with the unknown world. It enables us to keep a database of forests, animals, diseases like malaria, dengue cancer, HIV/AIDS, population, resources, etc. A database is the assortment of inter-related data on various topics in a computerized form in such a manner that it and can be recovered and processed whenever required. The information in the database is organized in a methodical and logical manner can be easily manageable.A number of user friendly software has been developed in the field of environment studies. Information technology increases our efficiency as it saves both time and human endeavour.

National Management Information System (NM1S) under the Department of Science and technology (DST) has assembled a database on Research and Development Projects along with complete information about research scientists and persons involved.

The Ministry of Environment and Forests, GOI, has formed an information System called Environmental Information System (ENVIS). Headquartered in Delhi, it functions in twenty five centres throughout the country. ENVIS is engaged in generating a database in Himalayan ecosystem, Mangroves, Coastal ecosystems, Environmental media, environmental management, biodiversity, clean technologies, pollution etc.

The National Institute of Occupational Health provides electronic information on the health aspects of people working with hazardous and non-hazardous substances, their safety measures etc.

Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System, Satellite images provide us real information about different topographical features and biological resources, their state of degradation in a digital form through remote sensing. Geographical Information System (GIS) has ascertained to be a very important and operational instrument in environmental management. GIS is a technique of overlaying various thematic maps gathered from digital data on a large number of inter-related aspects. They maps can be physical, chemical, biological, social, economic etc. Such maps provide information about ground water, surface water, soil types, farmland, wasteland, human settlements, industries as so; this can then help us for effective and wise planning of subsequent development projects, roadways, railways, town planning etc It provides an easy means of monitoring the present status and also assist us in predicting our future. GIS can even interpret polluted zones and degraded lands. GIS can be used to prepare Zonal Atlas. Planning for locating suitable areas for industrial growth is now being done using GIS by preparing Zoning Atlas. They help solving global environmental issues such as, smog formation, ozone depletion, oil and mineral reserves, weather changes, algal bloom etc.

The World Wide Web with resources material on all aspects, power- point lecture presentations, digital photos, animations, web-exercises and quiz has proved to be enormously useful to both students and the teachers of environmental studies.